Phonological history of English diphthongs
The phonological history of English diphthongs comprises sound changes to phonemes that have historically been diphthongs in the English language.
Background
English diphthongs have undergone many changes since the Old and Middle English periods. The sound changes discussed here involved at least one phoneme which historically was a diphthong.Old English
Old English diphthongs could be short or long. Both kinds arose from sound changes occurring in Old English itself, although the long forms sometimes also developed from Proto-Germanic diphthongs. They were mostly of the height-harmonic type with the second element further back than the first. The set of diphthongs that occurred depended on dialect. Typical diphthongs are considered to have been as follows:- high, fully backing,, spelt
- high, narrower, possibly, spelt
- mid,, spelt
- low,, spelt
In the transition from Old to Middle English, all of these diphthongs generally merged with monophthongs.
Middle English
Development of new diphthongs
Although the Old English diphthongs merged into monophthongs, Middle English began to develop a new set of diphthongs. Many of these came about through vocalization of the palatal approximant or the labio-velar approximant, when they followed a vowel. For example:- OE dæg and weg became and
- OE clawu and lagu became and
- OE streht became
- OE þoht became
''Vein–vain'' merger
Early Middle English had two separate diphthongs and. The vowel was typically represented orthographically with "ei" or "ey", and the vowel was typically represented orthographically with "ai" or "ay". These came to be merged, perhaps by the fourteenth century. The merger is reflected in all dialects of present-day English.In early Middle English, before the merger, way and day, which came from Old English weġ and dæġ had and respectively. Similarly, vein and vain were pronounced differently as and. After the merger, vein and vain were homophones, and way and day rhymed.
The merged vowel was a diphthong, something like or. Later this diphthong would merge in most dialects with the monophthong of words like pane in the pane–pain merger.
Late Middle English
The English of southeastern England around 1400 had seven diphthongs, of which three ended in :- as in boil, destroy, coin, join
- as in nail, day, whey
- as in joy, noise, royal, coy
- as in view, new, due, use, lute, suit, adieu
- as in few, dew, ewe, shrewd, neuter, beauty
- as in low, soul
- as in cause, law, salt, change, chamber, psalm, half, dance, aunt.
Modern English
16th century
By the mid-16th century, the Great Vowel Shift had created two new diphthongs out of the former long close monophthongs and of Middle English. The diphthongs were as in tide, and as in house. Thus, the English of south-eastern England could then have had nine diphthongs.By the late 16th century, the inventory of diphthongs had been reduced as a result of several developments, all of which took place in the mid-to-late 16th century:
- merged into and so dew and due became homophones.
- became monophthongized and merged with the of words like name. For more information, see pane–pain merger, below.
- * For a time, many speakers had an monophthong in pain distinct from an monophthong in pane.
- , as in cause, became monophthongized to, later raising to modern.
- , as in low, was monophthongized to That would later rise to, which merged with the vowel of toe; see toe–tow merger, below.
17th century
By the late 17th century, these further developments had taken place in the dialect of south-eastern England:- The falling diphthong of due and dew changed to a rising diphthong, which became the sequence. The change did not occur in all dialects, however; see Yod-dropping.
- The diphthongs and of tide and house widened to and, respectively.
- The diphthong merged into ~. Contemporary literature had frequent rhymes such as Mind–''join'd in Congreve, join–line in Pope, child–spoil'd in Swift, toils–smiles in Dryden.
- The diphthong split into and, though this sound change was still ongoing in the late 18th century. The present-day pronunciations with in the oi'' words result from regional variants, which had always had, rather than, perhaps because of influence by the spelling.
Later developments
In the 18th century or later, the monophthongs became diphthongal in Standard English. That produced the vowels and. In RP, the starting point of the latter diphthong has now become more centralized and is commonly written.RP has also developed centering diphthongs,,, as a result of breaking before /r/ and the loss of when it is not followed by another vowel. They occur in words like near, square and cure.
Present-day RP is thus normally analyzed as having eight diphthongs: the five closing diphthongs,,,, and the three centering diphthongs,,. General American does not have the centering diphthongs. For more information, see English phonology (vowels).
Variation in present-day English
''Coil''–''curl'' merger
The coil–''curl or oil–earl'' merger is a vowel merger that historically occurred in some non-rhotic dialects of American English, making both and become. This is strongly associated with New York City English and New Orleans English, but only the latter has any modern presence of the feature.''Cot''–''coat'' merger
The cot–''coat'' merger is a phenomenon exhibited by some speakers of Zulu English in which the phonemes and are not distinguished, making "cot" and "coat" homophones. Zulu English often also has a cot-caught merger, so that sets like "cot", "caught" and "coat" can be homophones.This merger can also be found in some broad Central Belt Scottish English accents. The merger of both sounds into is standard in Central Scots.
''Line''–''loin'' merger
The line–''loin merger is a merger between the diphthongs and that occurs in some accents of Southern English English, Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, and Caribbean English. Pairs like line and loin, bile and boil, imply and employ'' are homophones in merging accents.| IPA | ||
| aisle | oil | |
| ally | alloy | |
| bile | boil | |
| buy, by, bye, buy | boy, buoy | |
| divide | devoid | |
| dried | droid | |
| file | foil | |
| fire | foyer | |
| grind | groined | |
| guy | goy | |
| heist | hoist | |
| hi, high | hoy | |
| I | oi, oy | |
| I'll, isle | oil | |
| imply | employ | |
| Jain | join | |
| Kai | coy, koi | |
| kine | coin | |
| Kyle | coil | |
| liar | lawyer | |
| lied | Lloyd | |
| line | loin | |
| Lyle | loyal | |
| lyre | lawyer | |
| mile | moil | |
| nighs | noise | |
| Nile | noil | |
| pie | poi | |
| pies | poise | |
| pint | point | |
| ply | ploy | |
| psi | soy | |
| quite | quoit | |
| ride | roid | |
| rile | roil | |
| rile | royal | |
| rye | Roy | |
| sigh | soy | |
| sire | sawyer | |
| sire | soya | |
| Thai, tie | toy | |
| tide | toyed | |
| tile | toil | |
| try | Troy | |
| vice | voice | |
| vied | void | |
| wry | Roy |
Long mid mergers
The earliest stage of Early Modern English had a contrast between the long mid monophthongs and the diphthongs . In the vast majority of Modern English accents these have been merged, so that the pairs pane–''pain and toe–tow are homophones. These mergers are grouped together by Wells as the long mid mergers. All accents with the pane–pain merger have the toe–tow'' merger and vice versa.''Pane''–''pain'' merger
The pane–''pain merger is a merger of the long mid monophthong and the diphthong that occurs in most dialects of English. In the vast majority of Modern English accents, the vowels have been merged; whether the outcome is monophthongal or diphthongal depends on the accent. However, in a few regional accents, including some in East Anglia, South Wales, South Asia, and even Newfoundland and older Maine accents, the merger has not gone through and so pairs like pane-pain are distinct.A distinction, with the pane words pronounced with and the pain words pronounced with, survived in Norfolk English into the 20th century. Trudgill describes the disappearance of the distinction in Norfolk: "This disappearance was being effected by the gradual and variable transfer of lexical items from the set of to the set of as part of dedialectalisation process, the end-point of which will soon be the complete merger of the two lexical sets under — the completion of a slow process of lexical diffusion."
Walters reports the survival of the distinction in the Welsh English spoken in the Rhondda Valley, with in the pane words and in the pain words.
In accents that preserve the distinction, the phoneme is usually represented by the spellings ai, ay, ei and ey as in day, play, rain, pain, maid, rein, they etc. and the phoneme is usually represented by aCe as in pane, plane, lane, late etc. and sometimes by é'' and e as in re, café, Santa Fe etc.
| IPA | ||
| ade | aid | |
| ale | ail | |
| ate | eight | |
| bale | bail | |
| bade | bayed | |
| blare | Blair | |
| blaze | Blaise | |
| cane | Cain | |
| clade | clayed | |
| Clare | Claire | |
| bate | bait | |
| Daly | daily | |
| Dane | deign | |
| daze | days | |
| e'er | air | |
| e'er | heir | |
| ere | air | |
| ere | heir | |
| fane | fain | |
| fare | fair | |
| faze | fays | |
| flare | flair | |
| gale | Gail | |
| gate | gait | |
| gaze | gays | |
| glave | glaive | |
| grade | grayed | |
| graze | grays | |
| hale | hail | |
| hare | hair | |
| haze | hays | |
| haze | heys | |
| lade | laid | |
| lane | lain | |
| laze | lays | |
| made | maid | |
| Mae | May | |
| male | ||
| mane | main | |
| maze | maize | |
| maze | Mays | |
| page | Paige | |
| pale | pail | |
| pane | pain | |
| pare | pair | |
| pear | pair | |
| phase | fays | |
| phrase | frays | |
| plane | plain | |
| plate | plait | |
| Rae | ray | |
| raze | raise | |
| raze | rays | |
| razor | raiser | |
| re | ray | |
| sale | sail | |
| sane | sain | |
| sane | seine | |
| sane | Seine | |
| spade | spayed | |
| stare | stair | |
| suede | swayed | |
| tale | tail | |
| there | their | |
| there | they're | |
| trade | trayed | |
| vale | vail | |
| vale | veil | |
| vane | vain | |
| vane | vein | |
| wade | weighed | |
| wale | wail | |
| wales | wails | |
| Wales | wails | |
| wane | wain | |
| wane | Wayne | |
| waste | waist | |
| wave | waive | |
| waver | waiver | |
| whale | wail |
''Toe''–''tow'' merger
The toe–''tow merger is a merger of the Early Modern English vowels and that occurs in most dialects of English.The merger occurs in the vast majority of Modern English accents; whether the outcome is monophthongal or diphthongal depends on the accent. The traditional phonetic transcription for General American and earlier Received Pronunciation in the 20th century is, a diphthong. But in a few regional accents, including some in Northern England, East Anglia, South Wales and South Asia, the merger has not gone through, so that pairs like toe and tow, moan and mown, groan and grown, sole and soul, throne and thrown are distinct.
In 19th century England, the distinction was still very widespread; the main areas with the merger were in the northern Home Counties and parts of the Midlands.
The distinction is most often preserved in East Anglian accents, especially in Norfolk. Peter Trudgill discusses this distinction, and states that "...until very recently, all Norfolk English speakers consistently and automatically maintained the nose-knows distinction... In the 1940s and 1950s, it was therefore a totally unremarkable feature of Norfolk English shared by all speakers, and therefore of no salience whatsoever."
In a 2002 investigation into the English of the Fens, young people in west Norfolk were found to be maintaining the distinction, with back or in the toe set and central in the tow set, with the latter but not the former showing the influence of Estuary English.
Walters reports the survival of the distinction in the Welsh English spoken in the Rhondda Valley, with in the toe words and in the tow words.
Reports of Maine English in the 1970s reported a similar toad-towed distinction among older speakers, but was lost in subsequent generations.
In accents that preserve the distinction, the phoneme descended from Early Modern English is usually represented by the spellings ou, and ow as in soul, dough, tow, know, though etc. or through L-vocalization as in bolt, cold, folk, roll etc., while that descended from Early Modern English is usually represented by oa, oe, or oCe as in boat, road, toe, doe, home, hose, go, tone etc.
| IPA | ||
| Bo | bow | |
| bode | bowed | |
| borne | bourn | |
| borne | Bourne | |
| coaled | cold | |
| coarse | course | |
| do '' | dough | |
| doe | dough | |
| doze | doughs | |
| floe | flow | |
| foaled | fold | |
| fore | four | |
| forth | fourth | |
| fro | frow | |
| froe | frow | |
| froze | frows | |
| groan | grown | |
| holed | hold | |
| moan | mown | |
| mode | mowed | |
| Moe | mow | |
| no | know | |
| nose | knows | |
| O | owe | |
| ode | owed | |
| oh | owe | |
| pole | poll | |
| pore | pour | |
| road | rowed | |
| rode | rowed | |
| roe | row | |
| role | roll | |
| rose | rows | |
| shone | shewn | |
| shone | shown | |
| so | sew | |
| so | sow | |
| sole | soul | |
| soled | sold | |
| soled | souled | |
| throe | throw | |
| throne | thrown | |
| toad | towed | |
| toe | tow | |
| toed | towed | |
| tole | toll |
''Mare''–''mayor'' merger
The mare–''mayor merger occurs in British English and the Philadelphia—Baltimore dialect, and among scattered other American English speakers. The process has bisyllabic pronounced with a centering diphthong as in in many words. Such varieties pronounce mayor as, homophonous with mare.North American English accents with the merger allow it to affect also sequences without since some words with the sequence merge with, which is associated with /æ/ tensing before nasal consonants. The best-known examples are mayonnaise, crayon, and Graham''.
| IPA | ||
| bare | Bayer | |
| flare | flayer | |
| flair | flayer | |
| gram, gramme | Graham | |
| lair | layer | |
| mare | mayor | |
| pair | payer | |
| pare | payer | |
| pear | payer | |
| prayer | prayer | |
| stare | stayer | |
| sware | swayer | |
| swear | swayer | |
| there | they're |
- merger
The - merger is a merger of the diphthongs and. It occurs for some speakers of West Country English and in the North of England.''Pride''–''proud'' merger
The pride–''proud merger is a merger of the diphthongs and before voiced consonants into monophthongal occurring for some speakers of African American Vernacular English; making pride and proud, dine and down, find and found, etc. homophones. Some speakers with this merger may also have the rod–ride merger hence having a three–way merger of, and before voiced consonants, making pride, prod, and proud and find, found and fond'' homophones.| IPA | Notes | ||
| bi | bough | ||
| bi | bow | ||
| bide | bowed | ||
| bight | bout | ||
| bite | bout | ||
| brine | brown | ||
| buy | bough | - | |
| buy | bow | ||
| by | bough | ||
| by | bow | ||
| bye | bough | ||
| bye | bow | ||
| chai | chow | ||
| Clyde | cloud | ||
| dine | down | ||
| dire | dour | ||
| dyne | down | ||
| file | foul | ||
| file | fowl | ||
| find | found | ||
| fined | found | ||
| flight | flout | ||
| Giles | jowls | ||
| hi | how | ||
| high | how | ||
| hind | hound | ||
| I | ow | ||
| I'll | owl | ||
| ire | hour | ||
| ire | our | ||
| isle | owl | ||
| Kai | cow | ||
| Kyle | cowl | ||
| liar | lour | ||
| lice | louse | ||
| lied | loud | ||
| light | lout | ||
| lite | lout | ||
| lyre | lour | ||
| lyse | louse | ||
| mice | mouse | ||
| mind | mound | ||
| mined | mound | ||
| nigh | now | ||
| nine | noun | ||
| Nye | now | ||
| phial | foul | With vile-vial merger. | |
| phial | fowl | With vile-vial merger. | |
| ply | plow; plough | ||
| pride | proud | ||
| pried | proud | - | |
| pries | prows | ||
| prise | prows | ||
| prize | prows | ||
| pry | prow | ||
| pyre | power | ||
| ride | rowed | ||
| right | rout | ||
| right | route | ||
| rind | round | ] | |
| rise | rouse | ||
| rise | rows | ||
| rite | rout | ||
| rite | route | ||
| rye | row | ||
| ryes | rouse | ||
| sai | sow | ||
| sigh | sow | ||
| signed | sound | ] | |
| sire | sour | ||
| size | sows | - | |
| sly | slough | ||
| thy | thou | ||
| tie | tau | ||
| tight | tout | ||
| tine | town | ||
| trite | trout | ||
| Ty | tau | ||
| vie | vow | ||
| why | wow | With wine-whine merger. | |
| wise | wows | ||
| Y; wye | wow |
''Rod''–''ride'' merger
The rod–''ride merger is a merger of and occurring for some speakers of African American Vernacular English, in which rod and ride are merged as. Some other speakers may keep the contrast, so that rod is and ride is. Monophthongization of the PRICE vowel also occurs in Southern American English, however no vowel merger has been reported.This is similar to an earlier sound change where Proto-Germanic *ai shifted to Old English ā''.
| IPA | Notes | ||
| ah | eye | ||
| ah | I | ||
| baa | buy | ||
| baa | by | ||
| baa | bye | ||
| blot | blight | ||
| bock | bike | ||
| bod | bide | ||
| bot | bight | ||
| bot | bite | ||
| box | bikes | ||
| con | kine | ||
| cot | kite | ||
| doc | dike | ||
| dock | dike | ||
| dom | dime | ||
| Dom | dime | ||
| don | dine | ||
| Don | dine | ||
| fa | fie | ||
| far | fire | ||
| grom | grime | ||
| ha | high | ||
| hock | hike | ||
| hot | height | ||
| jar | gyre | ||
| job | gibe, jibe | ||
| knot | knight | ||
| knot | night | ||
| la | lie | ||
| la | lye | ||
| lock | like | ||
| lot | light, lite | ||
| lox | likes | ||
| ma | my | ||
| mar | mire | ||
| mock | mic | ||
| mock | Mike | ||
| mom | mime | ||
| motte | might | ||
| motte | mite | ||
| nah | nigh | ||
| nah | Nye | ||
| not | knight | ||
| not | night | ||
| odd | ide | ||
| odds | ides | ||
| ox | Ike's | ||
| pa | pi | ||
| pa | pie | ||
| par | pyre | ||
| pock | pike | ||
| pod | pied | ||
| plod | plied | ||
| plot | plight | ||
| pop | pipe | ||
| pox | pikes | ||
| prod | pride | ||
| prod | pried | ||
| prom | prime | ||
| rah | rye | ||
| roc | Reich | ||
| rock | Reich | ||
| rod | ride | ||
| ROM | rime | ||
| ROM | rhyme | ||
| rot | right | ||
| rot | rite | ||
| scrod | scried | ||
| shah | shy | ||
| shod | shied | ||
| slot | sleight | ||
| slot | slight | ||
| sock | psych | ||
| sod | side | ||
| sod | sighed | ||
| sot | sight | ||
| spa | spy | ||
| spar | spire | ||
| spot | spite | ||
| strop | stripe | ||
| swan | swine | ||
| swap | swipe | ||
| ta | tie | ||
| tar | tire, tyre | ||
| tod | tide | ||
| tod | tied | ||
| Todd | tide | ||
| Todd | tied | ||
| tom | time | ||
| tom | thyme | ||
| Tom | time | ||
| Tom | thyme | ||
| top | type | ||
| tot | tight | ||
| trod | tried | ||
| trot | trite | ||
| wad | why'd | With wine-whine merger. | |
| wad | wide | ||
| watt | white | With wine-whine merger. | |
| watt | wight |
Scottish vowel length rule
While the Scottish [vowel length rule|Scottish vowel length] rule affects most vowels, Wells analyses the split of the vowel as phonological rather than simply allophonic owing to its complexity. Some words such as fire break the pattern for some speakers. The split is present in Scottish English and can be traced back to the late 17th century in the Tyneside accent.| IPA | IPA | Notes | ||
| tied | tide | Morpheme boundary | ||
| sighed | side | Morpheme boundary |