Scaly-breasted munia


The scaly-breasted munia or spotted munia, known in the pet trade as nutmeg mannikin or spice finch, is a sparrow-sized estrildid finch native to tropical Asia. A species of the genus Lonchura, it was formally described and named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Its name is based on the distinct scale-like feather markings on the breast and belly. The adult is brown above and has a dark conical bill. The species has 11 subspecies across its range, which differ slightly in size and colour.
This munia eats mainly grass seeds apart from berries and small insects. They forage in flocks and communicate with soft calls and whistles. The species is highly social and may sometimes roost with other species of munias. This species is found in tropical plains and grasslands. Breeding pairs construct dome-shaped nests using grass or bamboo leaves.
The species is endemic to Asia and occurs from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and the Philippines. It has been introduced into many other parts of the world, and feral populations have established in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, as well as parts of Australia, and the United States of America, with sightings in California. The bird is listed as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Taxonomy

In 1743 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the scaly-breasted munia in the first volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "Gowry Bird". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen at the London home of Charles du Bois, treasurer to the East India Company. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the scaly-breasted munia with the crossbills in the genus Loxia. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Loxia punctulata and cited Edwards' work. Linnaeus specified the locality as "Asia" but this was restricted to Kolkata by E. C. Stuart Baker in 1926. The species is now placed in the genus Lonchura that was introduced by the English naturalist William Henry Sykes in 1832. The genus name Lonchura combines the Ancient Greek lonkhē meaning "spear-head" or "lance" with oura meaning "tail". The specific epithet is from Modern Latin punctulatus meaning "spotted" or "dotted".
Over its large range there are 11 recognised subspecies. These include the nominate form found in the plains of the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan, India, Iran, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The name lineoventer was formerly used for the Indian population. Other populations include subundulata from the eastern Himalayas, yunnanensis of southern China, topela of Thailand, cabanisi of the Philippines and fretensis of Singapore and Sumatra. Island populations include nisoria, particeps, baweana, sumbae and blasii.
  • L. p. punctulata – northern Pakistan, India, Nepal terai and Sri Lanka
  • L. p. subundulata – Bhutan, Bangladesh, northeast India and west Myanmar
  • L. p. yunnanensis Parkes, 1958 – southern China and north Myanmar
  • L. p. topela – southern Myanmar, Thailand, southeast China, Hainan Islands, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam
  • L. p. cabanisi – north and west Philippines and northern Borneo
  • L. p. fretensis – south Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra and Nias Islands
  • L. p. nisoria – southern Borneo, Java, Bali, and western Lesser Sundas
  • L. p. sumbae Mayr, 1944 – Sumba, in western Lesser Sundas
  • L. p. blasii – central & eastern Lesser Sundas
  • L. p. baweana Hoogerwerf, 1963 – Bawean Islands, off northeast Java
  • L. p. particeps – Sulawesi
The subspecies holmesi is sometimes recognised.

Description

The scaly-breasted munia is about long and weighs. The adult has a stubby dark bill typical of grain eating birds, brown upperparts and a dark brown head. The underparts are white with dark scale markings. The sexes are similar, although males have darker markings on the underside and a darker throat than females.
Immature birds have pale brown upperparts, lack the dark head found in adults, and have uniform buff underparts that can be confused with juveniles of other munia species such as the tricoloured munia across the Asian and island populations and the black-throated munia in parts of India or Sri Lanka.

Distribution and habitat

Scaly-breasted munias are found in a range of habitats but are usually close to water and grassland. In India, they are especially common in paddy fields where they are considered a minor pest on account of their feeding on grain. They are found mainly on the plains, but can be observed in the foothills of the Himalayas, in which they may be present at altitudes near, and in the Nilgiris, where they are found at altitudes up to during the summer. In Pakistan, they are restricted to a narrow region from Swat in the west to Lahore, avoiding the desert zone, and then occurring again in India east of an area between Ludhiana and Mount Abu. The species has also been observed in Kashmir, though this is rare.
Outside their native range, escaped birds frequently establish themselves in areas with a suitable climate and can then colonise new areas nearby. Escaped cagebirds established in the wild and such populations have been recorded in the West Indies, Hawaii, Japan and southern United States, mainly in Florida and California. In Oahu, Hawaii, they compete for habitats with the tricoloured munia and tend to be rare where this competitor is present. The species has been introduced to other parts of the world due to its popularity as a cage bird and populations have established in the wild.

Behaviour and ecology

Sociality

Scaly-breasted munias form flocks of as many as 100 birds. Individuals communicate with calls that include a short whistle, variations of kitty-kitty-kitty, and a sharp chipping alarm note. They sometimes flick their tails and wings vertically or horizontally while hopping about. The tail flicking motion may have evolved from a locomotory intention movement. The exaggerated version of the tail flicking movement may have undergone ritualisation. As a social signal, tail flicking in several other species acts as a signal indicating the intent to fly and helps keep flocks together.
When roosting communally, scaly-breasted munia sit side by side in close contact with each other. The outermost bird often jostles towards the center. Birds in a flock sometimes preen each other, with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin. Allopreening is usually limited to the face and neck. The scaly-breasted munia is rarely hostile but birds will sometimes quarrel without any ritualised posturing.

Breeding

The breeding season is during the summer rainy season but can vary. Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger gonadal growth. The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable, audible only at close range. This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in a slurred whistle. When singing the male sits in what is called the slope posture—erect with the head feathers raised.
There are two types of slope posture, a pre-copulatory one and an ordinary one. The pre-copulatory behaviour of scaly-breasted munia includes a sequence of actions. The first involves either the male or female playing with nest-material. As soon as a bird has arranged the nest material in its bill, it begins to fly around in a zigzag path. Once a bird lands close to its partner, the male bends towards the female and wipes its bill. The male then sings with movements of the body. The female invites mounting with tail quivering. The nest is a large domed structure loosely woven from blades of grass, bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and is placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house. A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be Toddalia asiatica, Gymnosporia montana and Acacia chundra, especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover. The nest opening is located to face downwind of the most frequent wind direction. In northern India, they preferred isolated Acacia nilotica in non-urban areas but used Thuja orientalis and Polyalthia longifolia in urban gardens.
Scaly-breasted munia clutches usually contain four to six eggs, but can contain up to ten. Both sexes build the nest and incubate the eggs, which hatch in 10 to 16 days.
The species is extensively used as a brood host by the parasitic pin-tailed whydah in Southern California with the munia raising the whydah's chicks as its own. This relationship is novel, as the two species do not naturally co-occur in their native ranges, and had no established evolutionary relationship as parasite and host.

Food and foraging

The scaly-breasted munia feeds mainly on grass seeds, small berries such as those of Lantana, and insects. Although the bill is suited for crushing small grains, they do not show lateral movements of the lower mandible that e.g. greenfinches show, which help in dehusking seeds. Like some other munias, they may also feed on algae, a rich protein source, prior to the breeding season.
The ease of maintaining these birds in captivity has made them popular for studying behaviour and physiology. Feeding behaviour can be predicted by the optimal foraging theory, where animals minimise time and energy spent to maximise food intake. This theory has been tested by studying the strategies used by scaly-breasted munias to increase their feeding efficacy.

Flock size tradeoffs

Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on predator vigilance, thereby increasing feeding efficiency. According to the "many-eyes" hypothesis, a reduction in the individual time spent on vigilance against threats in larger groups allows for more time to be spent on searching for food and feeding. Vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The birds collect seeds more quickly in larger groups, reflecting a decrease in individual vigilance, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus when foraging.
Individuals may also take advantage of group foraging by "joining" members that have found food. The options to seek food or to join others that have discovered food involves information sharing and has been studied through what are termed "producer-scrounger models". A cost associated with group foraging is increased resource competition, which in turn may reduce anti-predatory vigilance due to the intensity of foraging. Some studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate.