Sheng nü
Sheng nü, translated as 'leftover women' or 'leftover ladies', are women who remain unmarried in their late twenties and beyond in China. The term was popularized by the All-China Women's Federation. Most prominently used in China, the term has also been used colloquially to refer to women in India, North America, Europe, and other parts of Asia. The term compares unmarried women to leftover food and has gone on to become widely used in the mainstream media and has been the subject of several television series, magazine and newspaper articles, and book publications, focusing on the negative connotations and positive reclamation of the term.
While initially backed and disseminated by pro-government media in 2007, the term eventually came under criticism from government-published newspapers two years later. Xu Xiaomin of The China Daily described the sheng nus as "a social force to be reckoned with" and others have argued the term should be taken as a positive to mean "successful women". The slang term, 3S or 3S Women, meaning "single, seventies, and stuck" has also been used in place of sheng nu.
The equivalent term for men, Guang Gun, is used to refer to men who do not marry and thus do not add 'branches' to the family tree. Similarly, shengnan 'leftover men' has also been used. Scholars have noted that this term is not as commonly used as "leftover women" in Chinese society and that single males reaching a certain age will often be labeled as either 'golden bachelors' or 'diamond single men'.
Background
As a long-standing tradition, early-age marriage was prevalent in China's past. It was until 2005, that merely 2% of females aged between 30 and 34 were single. By contrast, 10% of the males were single. China's one-child policy and sex-selective abortions have led to a disproportionate growth in the country's gender balance. Approximately 20 million more men than women have been born since the one-child policy was introduced in 1979, or 120 males born for every 100 females. By 2020, China is expected to have 24 million more men than women. The global average is 103 to 107 newborn males per 100 females.According to The New York Times, the State Council of the People's Republic of China issued an "edict" in 2007 regarding the Population and Family Planning Program to address the urgent gender imbalance and cited it as a major "threat to social stability". The council further cited "upgrading population quality " as one of its primary goals and appointed the All-China Women's Federation, a state agency established in 1949 to "protect women's rights and interests", to oversee and resolve the issue.
The exact etymology of the term is not conclusively known, but most reliable sources cite it as having entered the mainstream in 2006. The China Daily reported in 2011 that Xu Wei, the editor-in-chief of the Cosmopolitan Magazine China, coined the term. The term, sheng nu, literally translates to "leftover ladies" or "leftover women". The China Daily newspaper further reported that the term originally gained popularity in the city of Shanghai and later grew to nationwide prominence. In 2007, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China released an official statement defining sheng nu as any "unmarried women over the age of 27" and added it to the national lexicon. According to several sources, the government mandated the All-China Women's Federation to publish series of articles stigmatizing unwed women who were in their late twenties.
In March 2011, the All-China Women's Federation posted a controversial article titled 'Leftover Women Do Not Deserve Our Sympathy' shortly after International Women's Day. An excerpt states, "Pretty girls do not need a lot of education to marry into a rich and powerful family. But girls with an average or ugly appearance will find it difficult" and "These girls hope to further their education in order to increase their competitiveness. The tragedy is, they don't realise that as women age, they are worth less and less. So by the time they get their MA or PhD, they are already old – like yellowed pearls." Originally at least 15 articles were available on its website relating to the subject of sheng nu, which have now been subsequently removed, that included matchmaking advice and tips.
China
Culture and statistics
The National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China and state census figures reported approximately 1 in 5 women between the ages of 25-29 remain unmarried. In contrast, the proportion of unwed men in that age range is much higher, sitting at around 1 in 3. In a 2010 Chinese National Marriage Survey, it was reported that 9 out of 10 men believe that women should be married before they are 27 years old. 7.4% of Chinese women between 30 and 34 were unmarried and the percentage falls to 4.6% between the ages 35–39. In comparison with neighbouring countries with similar traditional values, China has much higher female marriage rates. Despite being categorized as a "relatively rare" demographic, the social culture and traditions of China have put the issue in the social spotlight.Under the context of the one-child policy, gender selective abortion caused the male population in China to exceed that of women; more than 10% of men over 50 will choose not to enter into marriage in 2044.
A study of married couples in China noted that men tended to marry down the socio-economic ladder. "There is an opinion that A-quality guys will find B-quality women, B-quality guys will find C-quality women, and C-quality men will find D-quality women," says Huang Yuanyuan. "The people left are A-quality women and D-quality men. So if you are a leftover woman, you are A-quality." A University of North Carolina demographer who studies China's gender imbalance, Yong Cai, further notes that "men at the bottom of society get left out of the marriage market, and that same pattern is coming to emerge for women at the top of society".
File:Adia Chan.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Hong Kong actress Adia Chan starred in the drama television series You Are the One portraying the eldest, career-minded sibling.
China, and many other Asian countries, share a long history of conservative and patriarchal view of marriage and the family structure including marrying at a young age and hypergamy. The pressure from society and family has been the source criticism, shame, social embarrassment and social anxiety for many women who are unmarried. Chen, another woman interviewed by the BBC, said the sheng nu are "afraid their friends and neighbours will regard me as abnormal. And my parents would also feel they were totally losing face, when their friends all have grandkids already". Similar sentiment has been shared amongst other women in China, particularly amongst recent university graduates. A report by CNN cited a survey of 900 female university graduates across 17 Chinese universities where approximately 70 percent of those surveyed said "their greatest fear is becoming a 3S lady".
Under the patriarchal system in China, males tend to come under substantial financial pressure. For example, in China, great importance is often attached to male ownership of a property and a vehicle. This is evidenced in a survey which revealed that less than 20% of parents of daughters do not consider the ownership of a property as a precondition for marriage. This may have caused people to lay the blame on women. Moreover, the social image of so-called "Shengnus" is characterized by monetary worship, egocentricity and selfishness. Besides, people consider "Shengnu" as setting the bar high for their future partner but lacking in the virtues required as a tradition in the old times. Some females regard marriage as a springboard to improve the quality of their life. At one of the most popular dating TV show broadcast in China, a female participant blatantly claimed that "I’d rather cry in a BMW than laugh on a bicycle" when an unemployed male participant questioned her whether or not she is willing to take a ride on bike. This remark went viral instantly on social media in China, and attracted widespread criticism from many unmarried females.
The increasing popularity of unwed women in China has been largely accredited to the growing educated middle class. Women are more free and able to live independently in comparison to previous generations. Forbes reported that in 2013, "11 of the 20 richest self-made women in the world are Chinese". In addition, it cites that Chinese female CEOs make up 19 percent of women in management jobs making it the second highest worldwide after Thailand. A rapidly growing trend in premarital sex has been commonly surveyed and noted amongst women in China. In 1989, 15% of Chinese women engaged in premarital sex as compared to 2013, where 60-70% had done so. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences professor Li states that this shows an increase in the types of relationships amongst new generations in China.
The term has also been embraced by some feminists with the opening of 'sheng nu' social clubs. In an interview with fashion editor Sandra Bao by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, Bao stated that "many modern, single women in China enjoy their independence and feel comfortable holding out for the right man, even as they grow older." She further explained, "We don't want to make compromises because of age or social pressure".
Between 2008 and 2012, sociologist Sandy To, while at the University of Cambridge, conducted a 'grounded theory method' study in China regarding the topic. To's research focused on "marriage partner choice" by Chinese professional women in the form of a typology of four different "partner choice strategies". The main finding of the study found that contrary to the popular belief that highly educated and single women remain unmarried, or do not want to take on traditional roles in marriage, because of personal preference, that in contrast, they commonly have an appetite for marriage and that their main obstacle is traditional patriarchal attitudes. The study also pointed out that in other Asian countries such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, where women have been receiving a higher education, that correspondingly, the average age of marriage amongst them is much higher. The Chinese People's Daily cited a 2012 United Nations survey that found 74 percent of women in the United Kingdom and 70 percent of women in Japan were single between the ages of 25 and 29. The China Daily published an article that cited figures from the 2012 United Nations' World Marriage Data which reported 38% of women in the United States, and more than 50% of women in Britain remained unmarried in their 30s.