Roberto Cofresí
Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano, better known as El Pirata Cofresí, was a Puerto Rican pirate. He was born into a noble family, but the political and economic difficulties faced by the island as a colony of the Spanish Empire during the regional independence wars against the metropole meant that his household was poor. Cofresí worked at sea from an early age which familiarized him with the region's geography, but it provided only a modest salary, and he eventually decided to abandon the sailor's life and became a pirate. He had previous links to land-based criminal activities, but the reason for Cofresí's change of vocation is unknown; historians speculate that he may have worked as a privateer aboard El Scipión, a ship owned by one of his cousins.
At the height of his career, Cofresí evaded capture by vessels from Spain, Gran Colombia, the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, and the United States. He commanded several small-draft vessels, the best known a fast six-gun sloop named Anne, and he had a preference for speed and maneuverability over firepower. He manned them with small, rotating crews which most contemporaneous documents numbered at 10 to 20. He preferred to outrun his pursuers, but his flotilla engaged the West Indies Squadron twice, attacking the schooners and. Most crew members were recruited locally, although men occasionally joined them from the other Antilles, Central America, and Europe. He never confessed to murder, but he reportedly boasted about his crimes, and 300 to 400 people died as a result of his pillaging, mostly foreigners.
Cofresí proved too much for local authorities, who accepted international help to capture the pirate. Spain created an alliance with the West Indies Squadron and the Danish government of Saint Thomas. On March 5, 1825, the alliance set a trap which forced Anne into a naval battle. After 45 minutes, Cofresí abandoned his ship and escaped overland; he was recognized by a resident who ambushed and injured him. Cofresí was captured and imprisoned, making a last unsuccessful attempt to escape by trying to bribe an official with part of a hidden stash. The pirates were sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where a brief military tribunal found them guilty and sentenced them to death. On March 29, 1825, Cofresí and most of his crew were executed by firing squad.
He inspired stories and myths after his death, most emphasizing a Robin Hood-like "steal from the rich, give to the poor" philosophy which became associated with him. This portrayal has grown into legend, commonly accepted as fact in Puerto Rico and throughout the West Indies. Some of these claim that Cofresí became part of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other secessionist initiatives, including Simón Bolívar's campaign against Spain. Historical and mythical accounts of his life have inspired songs, poems, plays, books, and films. In Puerto Rico, caves, beaches, and other alleged hideouts or locations of buried treasure have been named after Cofresí, and a resort town is named for him near Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic.
Early years
Lineage
In 1945, historian Enrique Ramírez Brau speculated that Cofresí may have had Jewish ancestry. A theory, held by David Cuesta and historian Ursula Acosta, held that the name Kupferstein may have been chosen by his family when the 18th-century European Jewish population adopted surnames. The theory was later discarded when their research uncovered a complete family tree prepared by Cofresí's cousin, Luigi de Jenner, indicating that their name was spelled Kupferschein. Originally from Prague, Cofresí paternal patriarch Cristoforo Kupferschein received a recognition and coat of arms from Ferdinand I of Austria in December 1549 and eventually moved to Trieste. His last name was probably adapted from the town of Kufstein. After its arrival, the family became one of Trieste's early settlers. Cristoforo's son Felice was recognized as a noble in 1620, becoming Edler von Kupferschein. The family gained prestige and became one of the city's wealthiest, with the next generation receiving the best possible education and marrying into other influential families. Cofresí's grandfather, Giovanni Giuseppe Stanislao de Kupferschein, held several offices in the police, military and municipal administration. According to Acosta, Cofresí's father Francesco Giuseppe Fortunato von Kupferschein received a lateinschule education and left at age 19 for Frankfurt. In Frankfurt he mingled with influential figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, returning to Trieste two years later.As a cosmopolitan, mercantile city Trieste was a probable hub of illicit trade, and Francesco was forced to leave after he killed Josephus Steffani on July 31, 1778. Although Steffani's death is commonly attributed to a duel, given their acquaintanceship it may have been related to illegal activity. Francesco's name and those of four sailors soon became linked to the murder. Convicted in absentia, the fugitive remained in touch with his family. Francesco went to Barcelona, reportedly learning Spanish there. By 1784 he had settled in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, a harbor town recently separated from the municipality of San Germán and made the seat of an eponymous municipality, where he was accepted by the local aristocracy with the Spanish honorific Don. Francesco's name was Hispanicized to Francisco José Cofresí, which was easier for his neighbors to pronounce. Since he was linked to illegal commerce in his homeland, he probably relocated to Cabo Rojo for strategic reasons: its harbor was far from San Juan, the capital. Francisco soon met María Germana Ramírez de Arellano y Segarra, and they married. His wife was born to Clemente Ramírez de Arellano y del Toro y Quiñones Rivera, a noble and first cousin of town founder Nicolás Ramírez de Arellano y Martínez de Matos. Her paternal family, descended from the Jimena royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Navarre and the first royal house of the Kingdom of Aragón, owned a significant amount of land in Cabo Rojo. After their marriage the couple settled in El Tujao, near the coast. Francisco's father Giovanni died in 1789, and a petition pardoning him for Steffani's murder a decade before was granted two years later. However, no evidence exists that Francisco ever returned to the city.
Penniless nobleman and marauder
The Spanish American wars of independence had repercussions in Puerto Rico: due to widespread privateering and other naval warfare, maritime commerce suffered heavily. Cabo Rojo was among the municipalities affected most, with its ports at a virtual standstill. African slaves took to the sea in an attempt at freedom, whereas merchants were assessed higher taxes and harassed by foreigners. Under these conditions, Cofresí was born to Francisco and María Germana. The youngest of four children, he had one sister and two brothers. Cofresí was baptized into the Catholic Church by José de Roxas, the first priest in Cabo Rojo, when he was fifteen days old. María died when Cofresí was four years old, and an aunt assumed his upbringing. Francisco then began a relationship with María Sanabria, the mother of his last child Julián. A don by birth, Cofresí's education was above average; since there is no evidence of a school in Cabo Rojo at that time, Francisco may have educated his children or hired a tutor. The Cofresís, raised in a multicultural environment, probably knew Dutch and Italian. In November 1814 Francisco died, leaving a modest estate; Roberto was probably homeless, with no income.On January 14, 1815, three months after his father's death, Cofresí married Juana Creitoff in San Miguel Arcángel parish, Cabo Rojo. Contemporary documents are unclear about her birthplace: although it is also listed as Curaçao, she was probably born in Cabo Rojo to Dutch parents. After their marriage, the couple moved to a residence bought for 50 pesos by Creitoff's father, Geraldo. Months later Cofresí's father in-law lost his humble home in a fire, plunging the family into debt. Three years after his marriage Cofresí owned no property and lived with his mother-in-law, Anna Cordelia. He established ties with residents of San Germán, including his brothers-in-law: the wealthy merchant Don Jacobo Ufret and Don Manuel Ufret. The couple struggled to begin a family of their own, conceiving two sons who died soon after birth.
Although he belonged to a prestigious family, Cofresí was not wealthy. In 1818 he paid 17 maravedís in taxes, spending most of his time at sea and earning a low wage. According to historian Walter Cardona Bonet, Cofresí probably worked in a number of fishing corrals in Boquerón Bay. The corrals belonged to the aristocrat Cristóbal Pabón Dávila, a friend of municipal port captain José Mendoza. This connection is believed to have later protected Cofresí, since Mendoza was godfather to several of his brother Juan Francisco's children. The following year he first appeared on a government registry as a sailor, and there is no evidence linking him to any other jobs in Cabo Rojo. Although Cofresí's brothers were maritime merchants and sailed a boat, Avispa, he probably worked as an able fisherman. On December 28, 1819, Cofresí was registered on Ramona, ferrying goods between the southern municipalities. In addition, her frequent voyages to the Mona Passage and Cofresí's recognition by local residents indicate that he occasionally accompanied Avispa That year, Cofresí and Juana lived in Barrio del Pueblo and paid higher taxes than the previous year: five reales.
Political changes in Spain affected Puerto Rico's stability during the first two decades of the 19th century. Europeans and refugees from the American colonies began arriving after the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, changing the archipelago's economic and political environments. With strategic acquisitions, the new arrivals triggered a rise in prices. Food distribution was inefficient, particularly in non-agricultural areas. Unmotivated and desperate, the local population drifted toward crime and dissipation. By 1816, governor Salvador Meléndez Bruna shifted responsibility for law enforcement from the Captaincy General of Puerto Rico to the mayors. Driven by hunger and poverty, highway robbers continued to roam southern and central Puerto Rico. In 1817 wealthy San Germán residents requested help with the criminals, who were invading houses and shops. The following year, Meléndez established a high-security prison at El Arsenal in San Juan. During the next few years, the governor transferred repeat offenders to San Juan. Cabo Rojo, with its high crime rate, also dealt with civil strife, inefficient law enforcement and corrupt officials. While he was still a don, Cofresí led a criminal gang in San Germán which stole cattle, food and crops. He was linked to an organization operating near the Hormigueros barrio since at least 1818 and to another nobleman, Juan Geraldo Bey. Among Cofresí's associates were Juan de los Reyes, José Cartagena and Francisco Ramos, and the criminals continued to thrive in 1820. The situation worsened with the arrival of unauthorized street vendors from nearby municipalities, who were soon robbed. A series of storms and droughts drove residents away from Cabo Rojo, worsening the already-poor economy; authorities retrained the unemployed and underemployed as night watchmen.
The regional harvest was destroyed by a storm on September 28, 1820, triggering the largest crime wave in the western coast to date. Newly appointed Puerto Rican governor Gonzalo Aróstegui Herrera immediately ordered Lieutenant Antonio Ordóñez to round up as many criminals as possible. On November 22, 1820, a group of fifteen men from Cabo Rojo participated in the highway robbery of Francisco de Rivera, Nicolás Valdés and Francisco Lamboy on the outskirts of Yauco. Cofresí is believed to have been involved in this incident because of its timing and the criminals' link to an area headed by his friend, Cristóbal Pabón Dávila. The incident sparked an uproar in towns throughout the region, and convinced the governor that the authorities were conspiring with the criminals. Among measures taken by Aróstegui were a mayoral election in Cabo Rojo and an investigation of the former mayor. The incoming mayor was ordered to control crime in the region, an unrealistic demand with the resources at his disposal. Bernardo Pabón Davila, a friend of Cofresí and relative of Cristóbal, was assigned to prosecute the Yauco incident. Bernardo reportedly protected the accused and argued against pursuing the case, saying that according to "private confidences" they were fleeing to the United States. Other initiatives to capture highway robbers in Cabo Rojo were more successful, resulting in over a dozen arrests; among them was the nobleman Bey, who was charged with murder. Known as "El Holandés", Bey testified that Cofresí led a criminal gang. Cofresí's primary collaborators were the Ramírez de Arellano family, who prevented his capture as Cabo Rojo's founding family with high positions in politics and law enforcement. The central government issued wanted posters for Cofresí, and in July 1821 he and the rest of his gang were captured, though Bey escaped, becoming a fugitive. Cofresí and his men were tried in San Germán's courthouse, where their connection to several crimes was proven.
On August 17, 1821 Juana gave birth to their only daughter, Bernardina. Due to his noble status, Cofresí probably received a pass for the birth and took the opportunity to escape. In alternative theories, he broke out or was released on parole. While Cofresí was a fugitive, Bernardo Pabón Davila was Bernardina's godfather and Felícita Asencio her godmother. On December 4, 1821, a wanted poster was circulated by San Germán mayor Pascacio Cardona. There is little documentation of Cofresí's whereabouts in 1822. Historians have suggested that he exploited his upper-class connections to remain concealed: the Ramírez de Arellano family held most regional public offices, and their influence extended beyond the region. Other wealthy families, including the Beys, had similarly protected their relatives and Cofresí may have hidden in plain sight due to the inertia of Cabo Rojo authorities. When he became a wanted man, he moved Juana and Anna to her brothers' houses and would visit in secret; Juana also visited him at his headquarters in the rural ward of Pedernales in Cabo Rojo. It is unknown how far Cofresí traveled during this time, but he had associates on the east coast and may have taken advantage of eastern migration from Cabo Rojo. Although he may have been captured and imprisoned in San Juan, he does not appear in contemporary records. However, Cofresí's associates Juan "El Indio" de los Reyes, Francisco Ramos and José "Pepe" Cartagena were released only months before his recorded reappearance.