Reading
Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of symbols, often specifically those of a written language, by means of sight or touch.
For educators and researchers, reading is a multifaceted process involving such areas as word recognition, orthography, punctuation, alphabetics, phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and motivation.
Other types of reading and writing, such as pictograms, are not based on speech-based writing systems. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals.
There is a growing body of evidence which illustrates the importance of reading for pleasure for both educational purposes as well as personal development.
Overview
Reading is generally an individual activity, done silently, although on occasion a person reads out loud for other listeners, or reads aloud for one's own use. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable.Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts are oral language skills, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.
As a leisure activity, children and adults read because it is enjoyable and interesting. In the US, it was reported in 2022 that less than half of adults reported reading a book in the past 12 months. Furthermore, only 38 percent reported reading fiction or short stories, a rate that has fallen 17 percent over the past ten years. About 5% read more than 50 books per year. Americans read more if they: have more education, read fluently and easily, are female, live in cities, and have higher socioeconomic status. Children become better readers when they know more about the world in general, and when they perceive reading as fun rather than as a chore to be performed.
Reading vs. literacy
Reading is an essential part of literacy, yet from a historical perspective literacy is about having the ability to both read and write.Since the 1990s, some organizations have defined literacy in a wide variety of ways that may go beyond the traditional ability to read and write. The following are some examples:
- "the ability to read and write ... in all media, including digital literacy"
- "the ability to ... understand ... using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts"
- "the ability to read, write, speak and listen"
- "having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning"
- "the ability to ... communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials"
- "the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential". It includes three types of adult literacy: prose, documents, and quantitative literacy.
Also, some organizations might include numeracy skills and technology skills separately but alongside of literacy skills.
In addition, since the 1940s the term literacy is often used to mean having knowledge or skill in a particular field.
Writing systems
In order to understand a text, it is usually necessary to understand the spoken language associated with that text. In this way, writing systems are distinguished from many other symbolic communication systems. Once established, writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation.Cognitive benefits
Reading for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adolescence. Sustained high volume lifetime reading has been associated with high levels of academic attainment.Research suggests that reading can improve stress management, memory, focus, writing skills, and imagination.
The cognitive benefits of reading continue into mid-life and the senior years.
Research suggests that reading books and writing are among the brain-stimulating activities that can slow down cognitive decline in seniors.
The right to read
On April 23, 1968, when speaking on the occasion of the International Conference on Human Rights organized by the United Nations, the Director-General of UNESCO, Mr. René Maheu, said "One must first be able to read". The following year, James Allen, the then U.S. Commissioner of Education, declared, "There is no higher nationwide priority in the field of education than the provision of the right to read for all." At that time, UNESCO estimated there are 750 million people around the world who cannot read and write. The International Literacy Association reported that, according to UNESCO, 250 million children around the world lack basic literacy skills, saying "it's an issue of social justice". The right to read and write has been addressed by a variety of organizations, such as the South African Human Rights Commission.A unanimous decision of the Supreme Court of Canada, on November 9, 2012, recognized that learning to read is not a privilege, but a basic and essential human right. This was followed by the Right to Read inquiry report in Ontario, Canada.
State of reading achievement
Reading has been the subject of considerable research and reporting for decades. Many organizations measure and report on reading achievement for children and adults. See National and International reports below.Kindergarten to grade four
Researchers have concluded that approximately 95% of students can be taught to read by the end of the first or second year of school, yet in many countries 20% or more do not meet that expectation.A 2012 study in the U.S. found that 33% of grade three children had low reading scores – however, they comprised 63% of the children who did not graduate from high school. Poverty also had an additional negative impact on high school graduation rates.
According to the 2013 Nation's Report card in the United States, 32% of grade four students failed to perform at or above the Basic Reading Level. By 2019 this had increased to 34%. There was a significant difference by race and ethnicity. See more about the breakdown by ethnicity in 2019 and 2022 here. Following the school closures that resulted from the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, this increased to 37% in 2022, and by 2024 it was at 40%. It is believed that students who read below the basic level lack sufficient support to complete their schoolwork. This problem is exasperated because many special education teachers leave the field to move to general education.
According to a 2023 study in California, only 46.6% of grade three students achieved the English reading standards. Another report states that many teenagers who've spent time in California's juvenile detention facilities get high school diplomas with grade-school reading skills. "There are kids getting their high school diplomas who aren't able to even read and write." During a five-year span beginning in 2018, 85% of these students who graduated from high school did not pass a 12th-grade reading assessment.
In 2025, 58.3% of Tennessee third-grade students did not pass their reading test, although there was some improvement from the previous year.
Globally, disruption to education during the COVID-19 pandemic caused a substantial learning deficit in reading abilities and other academic areas. This arose early in the pandemic response and persists over time, and is particularly large among children from low socio-economic backgrounds. In the US, several research studies show that, in the absence of additional support, there is nearly a 90 percent chance that a poor reader in Grade 1 will remain a poor reader.
In Canada, it was reported that, in the province of Ontario 27% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2023, increasing to 29% in 2024. Also in Ontario, 52% of grade three students with special education needs, were not meeting the provincial standards in 2022. This increased to 55% in 2024. The province of Nova Scotia reported that 32% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2022. The province of New Brunswick reported that 43.4% and 30.7% did not meet the Reading Comprehension Achievement Levels for grades four and six respectively in 2023.
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study publishes reading achievement for fourth graders in 50 countries. The five countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland and Finland. Some others are: England 10th, United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd.
Middle school to high school
Many older students lag behind in reading skills and are "hiding in plain sight". The RAND Corporation reported that 44% of teachers in grades 3-12 say their students always or almost always have difficulty reading the content in their class. Ninety-seven percent of teachers modify their teaching to accommodate this concern. Some US reports in 2025 found that fifty-eight percent of teachers said that twenty-five percent or more of their middle and high school students had difficulty with basic reading skills. Furthermore, middle school English/language arts teachers often lack training in foundational literacy skills.This problem, in which middle school students and high school students are having difficulty comprehending grade-level text, may have its roots in what is referred to as the Decoding Threshold. Simply put, this means that some of these students lack sufficient foundational reading skills, which prevents them from correctly decoding words. Some researchers suggest that the solution is to use a screening test "to identify the students who need continued instructional support in foundational literacy skills". If warranted, the student may need to receive additional foundational reading skills training up to grade 8 or beyond.
Between 2013 and 2024, 40 US States and the District of Columbia have passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction. In 2023, New York City set about to require schools to teach reading with an emphasis on phonics. In that city, less than half of the students from the third grade to the eighth grade of school scored as proficient on state reading exams. More than 63% of Black and Hispanic test-takers did not make the grade. In 2025 the reading scores improved. 56.3% of all students in the third to eighth grades were reading at the proficient level. Black and Hispanic students also experienced an improvement, with 47% and 43.5% respectively reading at the proficiency level.
The Programme for International Student Assessment measures 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading. Critics, however, say PISA is fundamentally flawed in its underlying view of education, its implementation, and its interpretation and impact on education globally.