List of prime ministers of France
The head of the government of France has been called the prime minister of France since 1959, when Michel Debré became the first officeholder appointed under the Fifth Republic. During earlier periods of French history, the country's head of government was known by different titles. As was common in European democracies of the 1815–1958 period, the head of government was called President of the Council of Ministers, generally shortened to President of the council. This should not be confused with the elected office of president of the French Republic, who, as head of state, appoints the prime minister as head of government.
16th century – 18th century
Kingdom of France (843–1792)
Under the Kingdom of France, there was no official title for the leader of the government as the monarch held absolute power. However, conventions developed that the monarch would not act without the advice of royal council. The chief ministers of these councils under certain kings of France exercised enough influence to lead the government de facto. This situation ended with the start of the French Revolution as the adoption of a constitution in 1791 reframed the power dynamics of the monarchy. As the revolution progressed, the power dynamics continued to shift and ultimately resulted in the execution of the monarch and the establishment of a republic.18th century – 19th century
French First Republic (1792–1804)
During the First Republic, there were three arrangements for governance, the leadership of which changed frequently. The first government was that of the National Convention and did not provide for a formal head of state or a head of government. The President of the National Convention would only serve for a term of 14 days at a time. Even though the President was re-eligible to return to the office after another term had passed, this rarely occurred. Notable Presidents during this period included:- Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
- Georges Danton
- Maximilien Robespierre
- Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès
- Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès
In 1799, the Directory was superseded when a coup d'état headed by Napoleon Bonaparte forced the sitting members to resign. A new constitution was written establishing the Consulate. While initially a coequal of the other Consuls, Napoleon quickly set himself up as "First Consul of France" and later "Consul for Life" under yet another constitution.
French First Empire (1804–1815)
On May 18, 1804 the French Senate bestowed the title of "Emperor of the French" on Napoleon and he crowned himself on December 2, 1804. As Emperor, Napoleon was both head of state and head of government under the new constitution.First Restoration (1814–1815)
Following Napoleon's defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, he was exiled to the island of Elba. Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI, was placed on the newly restored throne of the French monarchy. Unlike the previous Ancien régime, the prerogative of the new monarch was limited by the Charter of 1814.Hundred Days (1815)
In March 1815, Napoleon left his exile and returned to France. The government of the Louis XVIII fled to the city of Ghent. Napoleon reinstated his role as both head of state and head of government. Upon Napoleon's abdication, his son Napoleon II was named Emperor. This rule was nominal, and Napoleon II, then a four-year old child, remained in Austria throughout his nominal reign.Bourbon Restoration (1815–1830)
Following his second defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was again exiled, this time to the island of St. Helena. Louis XVIII returned to Paris and to his role as constitutional monarch.July Monarchy (1830–1848)
When King Charles X was coronated he swore to uphold the constitutional Charter of 1814, but as his reign progressed he was seen to be increasingly in conflict with it. In 1830 the tension came to a climax when Charles dissolved the legislature, suspended certain liberties, and barred the middle class from participating in future elections. These July Ordinances in turn triggered outrage in Paris which resulted in the July Revolution. The revolution resulted in Charles X abdicating the throne in favor of his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans who promised to maintain a liberal constitutional monarchy under the Charter of 1830. Unlike the previous Charter, which was self-imposed by the monarch, the 1830 charter emanated from the people. This popular monarchy was reflected in Louis Philippe's title of "King of the French" rather than "King of France".Presidents of the Council of Ministers
;FactionsSecond French Republic (1848–1852)
The popularity of the new "Citizen King" declined over concerns that the suffrage of the populace was extremely limited to certain property owners. The desire to expand the electorate to a more universal male suffrage was undercut by a 1835 law which prohibited public political assemblies. To circumvent this ban, in 1847 a series of private meeting known as the campagne des banquets were organized. When these banquets were themselves banned popular unrest spilled into the streets in the February Revolution of 1848, which resulted in King Louis Philippe abdicating the throne and triggered a series of revolutions across Europe. A provisional government proclaimed a Second Republic, which would organized under a new constitution which provided for the election of a President. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, nephew of the former Emperor, won the subsequent election in a landslide.Second French Empire (1852–1870)
Under the constitution of the Second Republic, the President was to serve only one non-renewable term of four years. Bonaparte attempted to pass a constitutional amendment to make him eligible to run for another term, and while the amendment did receive a majority in the legislature, it was not enough to overcome the 2/3 supermajority needed. Believing he had the support of the people to continue in his policies, Bonaparte staged a self-coup on December 2, 1851. A few weeks later, the action was legitimized through a referendum that voted 92% in favor of Bonaparte remaining in office and authorizing him to draft a new constitution. The conduct of this referendum was considered to be rigged. Under the new form of government, Bonaparte was immediately reelected to a new 10 year term with no limits on reelection. About a year later, Bonaparte held another rigged referendum which voted 97% in favor of reestablishing the French Empire. Subsequently, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte coronated himself Emperor Napoleon III, and as such was both head of state and head of government.The legislative elections of 1869 resulted in an agreement which saw Émile Ollivier lead an independent government. While this was seen by some as a liberalization of the empire, a referendum in 1870 again showed overwhelming support for the Emperor's regime.
19th century – 20th century
Third French Republic (1870–1940)
In 1870, Napoleon III was facing pressure to combat the growing power of Prussia which was conducting a campaign of unification. Fearing that a new unified German state would disrupt France's place as a world leader, war was declared. The Prussian army proved to be much more effective and during the Battle of Sedan Napoleon III was captured. When the news reached Paris on September 4, a crowd stormed the Palais Bourbon and proclaimed a new republic. A new Government of National Defense was formed with the intention of continuing the war against the Prussians, but Paris remained under siege for the remainder of the war. An armistice was ultimately agreed to and French forces surrendered in January 1871.The defeated French organized a provisional government which negotiated the Treaty of Frankfurt ending the war. Post war instability and chaos, including the formation and fall of the Paris Commune, led to contentious debates about the formation of this new republic. It was even heavily considered that a third [French French Third Republic|Third Restoration|restoration of the monarchy] was in order. However, disagreements continued and the organization of the provisional government became permanent with the enactment of the Constitutional Laws of 1875.
French State (1940–1944)
Following the success of the German military in the Battle of France, the government under Marshal Philippe Pétain signed the Second Armistice at Compiègne. The armistice transferred the northern territory of the nation into a zone occupied by the German army, while the southern portion of the country would remain a Zone libre. Those opposed to the armistice, led by Charles de Gaulle, continued the war effort abroad and formed a government in exile. On 10 July 1940, the French parliament voted to give full powers to Pétain who days later proclaimed the État Français, commonly known as "Vichy France" due to its location. Pétain served as Chief of State and nominal President of the Council of Ministers, until 1942. From 1942, Pétain remained Chief of State, but Pierre Laval was named Chief of the Government.When the war concluded, de Gaulle explicitly refused to declare a new republic, insisting that the Third Republic had never ceased to exist. The Ordinance of 9 August 1944 declared the Vichy government unconstitutional, and as such any actions taken by them were null and void.