Pashto grammar

Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender, number, and case. The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses, Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms.
In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é.

Pronouns

Note: هغه as a demonstrative pronoun has initial stress whereas the personal pronoun has final stress .

Possessive pronouns

There is no plural form with nouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Indefinite

In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ 'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ 'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ 'something'.
When هر /har, ar/ 'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone, everything, each one

Nouns

Case and gender

Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative and vocative. The oblique case is used as prepositional case as well as in the past tense as the subject of transitive verbs, and the ablative case is used with certain prepositions and with some numerals.
There are two genders: masculine and feminine. Gender of a noun is indicated by its ending. Animate nouns' gender agrees with biological gender regardless of the ending.
Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as demonstratives. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" – "a hospital".

Class 1

Masculine nouns

Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان -ā́n in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه -úna. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ meṛә́ "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه meṛúna, and پل pul "bridge" is animate — پلان pulā́n.
The nouns ending in -i, -ā or -u take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels.
Words ending in -āCә́ pattern have short -a- in plural.

	Singular	Plural
Direct		ان ā́n
Oblique		انو ā́no
Ablative	ه a	انو ā́no
Vocative	ه a	انو ā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct		ونه úna
Oblique		ونو úno
Ablative	ه a	ونو úno
Vocative	ه a	ونو úno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ۀ ә́	ان ā́n
Oblique	ۀ ә́	انو ā́no
Ablative	ۀ ә́	انو ā́no
Vocative	ۀ ә́	انو ā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ۀ ә́	ونه úna
Oblique	ۀ ә́	ونو úno
Ablative	ۀ ә́	ونو úno
Vocative	ۀ ә́	ونو úno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ي i	يان yā́n
Oblique	ي i	یانو yā́no
Ablative	ي i	یانو yā́no
Vocative	ي i	یانو yā́no

	Singular	Plural 1	Plural 2
Direct	ا ā	ايان āyā́n	اګان āgā́n
Oblique	ا ā	ايانو āyā́no	اګانو āgā́no
Ablative	ا ā	ايانو āyā́no	اګانو āgā́no
Vocative	ا ā	ايانو āyā́no	اګانو āgā́no

	Singular	Plural 1	Plural 2
Direct	و u	وان wā́n	ګان gā́n
Oblique	و u	وانو wā́no	ګانو gā́no
Ablative	و u	وانو wā́no	ګانو gā́no
Vocative	و u	وانو wā́no	ګانو gā́no

Examples

	Singular	Plural
Direct	پلار plār	پلرونه plərunə
Oblique	پلار plār	پلرونو pləruno
Ablative	پلاره plā́ra	پلرونو pləruno
Vocative	پلاره plā́ra	پلرونو pləruno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	غوږ ğhwəg	غوږونه ğhwəgúna
Oblique	غوږ ğhwəg	غوږونو ğhwəgúno
Ablative	غوږه ğhwə́ga	غوږونو ğhwəgúno
Vocative	غوږه ğhwə́ga	غوږونو ğhwəgúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	لېوۀ lewә́	لېوان lewā́n
Oblique	لېوۀ lewә́	لېوانو lewā́no
Ablative	لېوۀ lewә́	لېوانو lewā́no
Vocative	لېوۀ lewә́	لېوانو lewā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	زړۀ zṛә́	زړونه zṛúna
Oblique	زړۀ zṛә́	زړونو zṛúno
Ablative	زړۀ zṛә́	زړونو zṛúno
Vocative	زړۀ zṛә́	زړونو zṛúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	وادۀ wādә́	ودونه wadúna
Oblique	وادۀ wādә́	ودونو wadúno
Ablative	وادۀ wādә́	ودونو wadúno
Vocative	وادۀ wādә́	ودونو wadúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	درزي darzí	درزيان darzyā́n
Oblique	درزي darzí	درزیانو darzyā́no
Ablative	درزي darzí	درزیانو darzyā́no
Vocative	درزي darzí	درزیانو darzyā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	باچا bāčā́	باچايان bāčāyā́n
Oblique	باچا bāčā́	باچايانو bāčāyā́no
Ablative	باچا bāčā́	باچايانو bāčāyā́no
Vocative	باچا bāčā́	باچايانو bāčāyā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ماما māmā́	ماماګان māmāgā́n
Oblique	ماما māmā́	ماماګانو māmāgā́no
Ablative	ماما māmā́	ماماګانو māmāgā́no
Vocative	ماما māmā́	ماماګانو māmāgā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ډاکو ḍākú	ډاکوان ḍākwā́n
Oblique	ډاکو ḍākú	ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no
Ablative	ډاکو ḍākú	ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no
Vocative	ډاکو ḍākú	ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	الو alú	الوګان alugā́n
Oblique	الو alú	الوګانو alugā́no
Ablative	الو alú	الوګانو alugā́no
Vocative	الو alú	الوګانو alugā́no

Feminine nouns

Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings.
In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه stә́rga "eye" and لار lār "way" would be سترګې stә́rge and لارې lā́re in the North, but سترګي stә́rgi and لاري lā́ri in the South, while مڼه maṇá "apple" and تخته taxtá "board" would be مڼې maṇé and تختې taxté in both dialect groups.
There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e and -ā or -o. In Southern Pashto they are یاني -yā́ni, ګاني -gā́ni and وي -wi.

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ه a	ې e
Oblique	ې e	و o
Ablative	ې e	و o
Vocative	ې e	و o

	Singular	Plural
Direct		ې e
Oblique	ې e	و o
Ablative	ې e	و o
Vocative	ې e	و o

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ې e	یانې yā́ne
Oblique	ې e	یانو yā́no
Ablative	ې e	یانو yā́no
Vocative	ې e	یانو yā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct		ګانې or وې gā́ne or we
Oblique		ګانو or وو gā́no or wo
Ablative		ګانو or وو gā́no or wo
Vocative		ګانو or وو gā́no or wo

Examples

	Singular	Plural
Direct	اسپه áspa	اسپې áspe
Oblique	اسپې áspe	اسپو áspo
Ablative	اسپې áspe	اسپو áspo
Vocative	اسپې áspe	اسپو áspo

	Singular	Plural
Direct	مياشت myā́šht	مياشتې myā́šhte
Oblique	مياشتې myā́šhte	مياشتو myā́šhto
Ablative	مياشتې myā́šhte	مياشتو myā́šhto
Vocative	مياشتې myā́šhte	مياشتو myā́šhto

	Singular	Plural
Direct	خواښې xwā́x̌e	خواښیانې xwax̌yā́ne
Oblique	خواښې xwā́x̌e	خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no
Ablative	خواښې xwā́x̌e	خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no
Vocative	خواښې xwā́x̌e	خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	رڼا raṇā́	رڼاوې or رڼاګانې raṇā́we or raṇāgā́ne
Oblique	رڼا raṇā́	رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no
Ablative	رڼا raṇā́	رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no
Vocative	رڼا raṇā́	رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	بیزو bizó	بیزوګانې or بیزووې bizogā́ne or bizówe
Oblique	بیزو bizó	بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo
Ablative	بیزو bizó	بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo
Vocative	بیزو bizó	بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo

Class 2

In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms.
Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور tanúr "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern. The word پالېز paléz "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes.
There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á shepherd", غوبه ğoba ", they also belong to Class 2.
Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ğar "mountain", ور war "door", ګز gaz "gaz ", من man "man ", ټغر ṭağar "rug" take ونه -úna in the plural form.
Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن.

	Singular	Plural
Direct	úC, óC	āCə́
Oblique	āCə́	aCó
Ablative	úCa, óCa	aCó
Vocative	úCa, óCa	aCó

	Singular	Plural
Direct	úC, óC	uCúna, oCúna or əCúna
Oblique	uCə́, óCə́	uCúno, oCúno or əCúno
Ablative	úCa, óCa	uCúno, oCúno or əCúno
Vocative	úCa, óCa	uCúno, oCúno or əCúno

Examples

	Singular	Plural
Direct	پښتون pəx̌tún	پښتانه pəx̌tānə́
Oblique	پښتانه pəx̌tānə́	پښتنو pəx̌tanó
Ablative	پښتونه pəx̌túna	پښتنو pəx̌tanó
Vocative	پښتونه pəx̌túna	پښتنو pəx̌tanó

	Singular	Plural
Direct	شپون špún	ښپانۀ špānə́
Oblique	ښپانۀ špānə́	شپنو španó
Ablative	شپونه špúna	شپنو španó
Vocative	شپونه špúna	شپنو španó

	Singular	Plural
Direct	سکور skór	سکارۀ skārə́
Oblique	سکارۀ skārə́	سکرو skaró
Ablative	سکوره skóra	سکرو skaró
Vocative	سکوره skóra	سکرو skaró

	Singular	Plural
Direct	تنور tanúr	تنرونه or تنورونه tanərúna or tanurúna
Oblique	تناره tanārə́	تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno
Ablative	تنوره tanúra	تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno
Vocative	تنوره tanúra	تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	تول tol	تولونه tolúna
Oblique	تالۀ tālə́	تولونو tolúno
Ablative	توله tóla	تولونو tolúno
Vocative	توله tóla	تولونو tolúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	مېلمه melmá	مېلمانه or مېلمه melmānə́ or melmə́
Oblique	مېلمانه or مېلمه melmānə́ or melmə́	مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó
Ablative	مېلمه melmá	مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó
Vocative	مېلمه melmá	مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó

	Singular	Plural
Direct	غل ğal	غله ğlə
Oblique	غله ğlə	غلو ğlo
Ablative	غله ğhála	غلو ğlo
Vocative	غله ğhála	غلو ğlo

	Singular	Plural
Direct	غر ğhar	غرونه or غرۀ ğhrúna or ğhrə
Oblique	غر ğhar	غرونو ğhrúno
Ablative	غره ğhára ğhrə	غرونو ğhrúno
Vocative	غره ğhára ğhrə	غرونو ğhrúno

	Singular	Plural
Direct	دښمن dux̌mán	دښمن or دښمنان dux̌mə́n or dux̌mənā́n
Oblique	دښمن dux̌mə́n	دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no
Ablative	دښمنه dux̌mána	دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no
Vocative	دښمنه dux̌mána	دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	پالېز paléz	پلېزونه palezúna
Oblique	پالېزۀ or پالېز palezə́ or paléz	پلېزونو palezúno
Ablative	پلېزه paléza	پلېزونو palezúno
Vocative	پلېزه paléza	پلېزونو palezúno

Class 3

Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e.
Masculine -áy nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto.
Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i also belong here.

	Singular	Plural 1	Plural 2
Direct	ی ay	ي i	يان yā́n
Oblique	ي í	و or یو o or әyo/iyo	يانو yā́no
Ablative	یه aya	و or یو o or әyo/iyo	يانو yā́no
Vocative	یه aya	و or یو o or әyo/iyo	يانو yā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ې e	ې e
Oblique	ې e	و or یو o or әyo/iyo
Ablative	ې e	و or یو o or әyo/iyo
Vocative	ې e	و or یو o or әyo/iyo

	Singular	Plural 1	Plural 2	Plural 3
Direct	ۍ, ي ə́y, i	ۍ ə́y	یانې yā́ne	ګانې gā́ne
Oblique	ۍ, ي ə́y, i	و o	یانو yā́no	ګانو gā́no
Ablative	ۍ, ي ə́y, i	و o	یانو yā́no	ګانو gā́no
Vocative	ۍ, ي ə́y, i	و o	یانو yā́no	ګانو gā́no

Examples

	Singular	Plural
Direct	سپی spáy	سپي or سپیان spí or spiyā́n
Oblique	سپي spí	سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no
Ablative	سپیه spáya	سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no
Vocative	سپیه spáya	سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	سپۍ spə́i	سپۍ or سپیانې or سپۍګانې spə́y or spə́iyā́ne or spə́igā́ne
Oblique	سپۍ spə́i	سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no
Ablative	سپۍ spə́i	سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no
Vocative	سپۍ spə́i	سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ملګری malgə́ray	ملګري malgə́ri
Oblique	ملګري malgə́ri	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo
Ablative	ملګریه malgə́rya	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo
Vocative	ملګریه malgə́rya	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ملګرې malgə́re	ملګرې malgə́re
Oblique	ملګرې malgə́re	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo
Ablative	ملګرې malgə́re	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo
Vocative	ملګرې malgə́re	ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo

Uncountable nouns

They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms.
Feminine
Examples include اوړه, اوبه, پۍ etc.
Example: اوبه – water
Example: پۍ – milk
Masculine
Examples include: ږدن, دال, شراب
Example: دال – lentils

Irregular nouns

These are limited to nouns denoting kinship.
Feminine – "or" stem
These include:
مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/
خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/
ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/
نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/
Example:

	Singular	Plural
Direct	مور mor	مېندې máynde
Oblique	مور mor	مېندو máyndo
Ablative	مورې móre	مېندو máyndo
Vocative	مورې móre	مېندو máyndo

Brother and daughter
ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural

	Singular	Plural
Direct	ورور wror	وروڼه wrúṇa
Oblique	ورور wror	وروڼو wrúṇo
Ablative	وروره wrorá	وروڼو wrúṇo
Vocative	وروره wrorá	وروڼو wrúṇo

لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural

	Singular	Plural
Direct	لور lur	لوڼې lúṇe
Oblique	لور lur	لوڼو lúṇo
Ablative	لورې lúre	لوڼو lúṇo
Vocative	لورې lúre	لوڼو lúṇo

Son

	Singular	Plural
Direct	زوی zoy	زامن zāmə́n
Oblique	زوی zoy	زامنو zāmə́no
Ablative	زویه zoya	زامنو zāmə́no
Vocative	زویه zoya	زامنو zāmə́no

Adjectives

An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto . The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.
Notes:

In the plural, both obliques and the vocative merge into a single form.
Singular Oblique I and plural Direct always merge into a single form.
The above two conditions mean that there can be at most five distinct forms for masculine adjectives.
For feminine adjectives, singular Oblique I and Vocative merge, while singular Direct and Oblique II merge; combined with mergers noted previously, there can be at most three distinct forms for feminine adjectives.
Categories 2 and 3 have stem and stress alternations among different cases. Category 3 has a basic distinction between the masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, with stem stress, and all other forms, with a different stem and with ending stress. Category 2 has the same stress alternation, but has three distinct stems, with stressed stem vowel 'o' or 'u' in masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, unstressed stem vowel 'ā' in masculine singular Oblique I and plural Direct, and unstressed stem vowel 'a' in all other forms.

Class 1

Case-marking suffixes

Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.

Stem allomorphy

In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either:

Vowel harmony

Centralization

In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.

Vowel harmony

Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/, such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.

Centralization

Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.

Class I forms with stem allomorphy

Example 1 = سپک
The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule.
Example 2 = زړور
The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.

Animacy

When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example:

Class 2

Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa. Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are
inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 or Class II is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.

Stem allomorphy

Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives. Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:

Syncope I
Back vowel lowering
Monophthongization
Lengthening
Syncope II
'''Epenthesis'''
Syncope I

V2 → Ø/ V́1_
V́1 → Ø/ _V́2

If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives.
Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/
Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.

Back vowel lowering

V-stress] / C_

Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed.
In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.

Monophthongization

aw → V-high] → V-high], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed.

Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /tawd/.

Lengthening

a → ā /_Cə́

Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.

Lengthening

V → Ø

In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed.
'''Example = سور /sur/ – red'''

Epenthesis

Ø → a/C_CC or CC_C

If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.

Class 3

These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.

Case-marking suffixes

Stressed
'''Unstressed'''

Stressed

'''Example = زلمی '''

Unstressed

'''Example = سوی '''

Class 4

This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction.
But some speakers use the oblique suffixes و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases.
Example = شمالي
'''Example = شمالي '''

Derivational affixes

Pashto utilities morphological derivation: there is an addition to the base form or stem of a word in order to modify its meaning .

Prefixes

These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones:

Prefix	Meaning
نا	a negative prefix to nouns or particles having the same meaning as English "un, in, dis, non" etc.
بې	this means "without". When prefixed to words it is equivalent to the English "dis, less" etc. Considered a preposition.
بيا	this means again. When prefixed to words it is equivalent to English "re"
هم	this means same, equivalent. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "co and homo"
ګڼ	this means crowded and numerous. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "multi"
دوه	this means two. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "bi"

A list of examples:

	Word	English meaning	Prefixed word	English meaning
نا nā	وړ waṛ	suitable	ناوړ nāwáṛ	unsuitable
بې be	کور kor	home	بې کوره be kóra '	homeless
بيا byā	جوړول joṛawә́l	to make	بيا جوړول byā joṛawә́l	to remake
هم ham	، زولې	همزولی، همزولې hamzólay, hamzól	coeval
ګڼ gaṇ	هېواديز hewādíz	national	ګڼ هېواديز gaṇhewādíz	multinational
دوه dwa'''	اړخيز aṛxíz	aṛx= side, íz = adjective forming suffix	دوه اړخيز dwa aṛxíz	bilateral

Suffixes

These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones:

Prefix	Meaning
توب	this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form masculine concept/abstract nouns.
تیا	this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form feminine concept/abstract nouns.
ي	this is affixed to noun to make adjectives.
ي	a suffix also used to create nouns of profession.
يز يزه	adjectival suffix. Used to make adjectives from nouns. Becomes "yiz" if preceded by a vowel e.g. سوله=سوله ييز
من	suffix that forms nouns and adjectives that mean possessing a quality or object
جن	adjective-forming suffix; having the quality of the noun e.g. چنجن
ين	an adjective-forming suffix applied to nouns denoting a material
ور	an adjective forming suffix to show endowment/possession.
م	forms ordinal number names from cardinals
ښت	this is affixed to adjectives to show a state of being
ګلوي	this is affixed to nouns to form feminine concept/abstract nouns mostly to do with association e.g. پیژند ګلوي, پلار ګلوي etc.
والی	this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form masculine concept/abstract nouns.
ولي	this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form feminine concept/abstract nouns.
ځی	this makes nouns denoting place of the action
نه	this is the most common suffix used to makes nouns from verb. The new suffixed word has feminine gender.
ون	less frequently used than نه. This also creates nouns from verbs
اک	this is used to make only two nouns denoting consumable noun. Like Japanese particle もの.
تون	used to create nouns of place. Meaning the " place of"
پال پاله	means someone is the cherisher/nourisher of the word attached. It is like Persian پرست but unlike پرست only used for agentive nouns not as an adjective.
پالنه	makes concept/abstract nouns showing the root's cherishing/fostering. Like Persian پرستي
واکي	makes nouns which signify "mastery of", "rule of" or "endowment with in quality" with the root word. Related to word واک .
وال	makes nouns showing that noun is a resident of that place, is engaged in the activity indicated in the root word, possessor of the root word. Like English suffix "er", "or" and "ist".
واله	makes nouns denoting owenership
ګر	used to form an actor noun. Denoting maker, doer, worker etc. of the root.
چي	an agent-noun suffix borrowed from Ottoman Turkish. Only used with borrowed words.
ګوټی	a diminutive suffix. Example مېز – مېزګوټی .
وزمه	suffix to indicate something is like/similar to the root word but not that word. Also used to denote shades of colour.
نی	suffix affixed to words having to do with time and location
ی	suffix affixed to place names to form a masculine noun living or found in that place
ۍ	suffix affixed to place names to form a feminine noun living or found in that place
ګنۍ	suffix for nouns expressing kinship/relationships
وړ وړه	this is used exactly as the English '. Forms adjectives meaning fit/able to be done or suitable to.
يالی يالۍ	forms adjectives from nouns. The adjective shows a quality that can be possessed.
غاړی غاړې	forms actor/agent nouns that have to do with an art/skill . Also used to create adjective/nouns related to the throat such as بوږغاړی
چک	an adjectival suffix showing that the new word is "somewhat" like the root word. Similar to "ish" suffix in English.
ډله	this means group. It can be used as suffix to denote team, group, company etc.
هار	according to Z. A. Pashtoon: "suffix used to form onomatopoeic words indicating the repetition or intensification of a sound". according to H. G. Raverty: a suffix "affixed to nouns signifying sound of any kind, in forming the plural".

A list of examples:

	Word	English meaning	Prefixed word	English meaning
توب tob	بربنډ barbə́nḍ	nude	بربنډتوب barbənḍtób	nudeness/nudity
تیا tyā	روغ roğh	healthy	روغتيا roğhtyā́	health
ي i	ولس ulə́s	nation	ولسي uləsí	national
ي i	ترکاڼ tarkā́ṇ	carpenter	ترکاڼي tarkāṇí	carpentry
يز/يزه iz/iza	لمر lmar	sun	لمريز lmaríz لمريزه lmaríza	solar
يز/يزه yiz/yiza	وټه wáṭa	economy	وټه ييز waṭayíz وټه ييزه waṭayíza	economic
من man	لانجه lānjá	problem	لانجمن lānjamán lānjamə́n	problematic
جن jən	کرکه krә́ka	repugnance	کرکجن krәkjә́n	someone who is repugnant to something
ين in	زر zar	gold	زرين zarín	golden
ور war	ګټه gáṭa	profit	ګټور gaṭawár	advantageous
م' am/əm	اووه uwə́	seven	اووم uwə́m	seventh
ښت əx̌t	جوړ joṛ	made/built	جوړښت joṛə́x̌t	structure
ګلوي galwi	پلار plār	father	پلارګلوي plār	paternity
والی wālay	اوږد uẓ̌d	long	اوږدوالی uẓ̌dwā́lay	length/height
ولي wali	ورور wror	brother	ورورولي wrorwalí	brotherhood
ځی dzay	ښوول x̌owə́l	to teach	ښونځی x̌owə́ndzay	school
نه əna	غوښتل ğox̌tə́l	to demand	غوښتنه ğox̌tə́na	demand
ون un	بدلول badlawə́l	to change	بدلون badlún	change
اک āk	څښل tsx̌ə́l خوړل xwaṛə́l	to drink to eat	څښاک tsx̌āk خوراک xwaṛā́k	drink food
تون tun	پوهنه pohə́na	knowledge	پوهنتون pohəntún	university
پال/پاله pal/pāla	مېلمه melmá	guest	مېلمه پال melmapā́l مېلمه پاله melmapā́la	host
پالنه pālana	مېلمه melmá	guest	مېلمه پالنه melmapālə́na	hospitality
واکي wāki	پلار plār	father	پلارواکي plārwākí	patriarchy
وال wāl	ليک lik	writing	ليکوال likwā́l	writer
واله wālə	غنم ğhanə́m	wheat	غنم واله ğhanəmwālə	wheat-merchant
ګر gər	کوډه kóḍa	magic	کوډګر koḍgə́r koḍgár	magician
چي chi	توپ top	cannon	توپچي topčí	cannoneer
ګوټی goṭay	کتاب kitā́b	book	کتاب ګوټی kitābgóṭay	booklet
وزمه wazma	تور tor	black	تور وزمه torwázma	blackish
نی náy	کال kāl	year	کالنی kālanáy	annual
ی''' áy	جاپان jāpā́n	Japan	جاپانی jāpānáy	a Japanese male
ۍ ə́i	جاپان jāpā́n	Japan	جاپانۍ jāpānə́i	a Japanese female
ګنۍ ganai	پلار plār مور mor	father mother	پلارګنۍ plārganə́i مورګنۍ morganə́i	paternal-family maternal-family
وړ/وړه waṛ/waṛa	خندا xandā́	laughter	خنداوړ xandāwáṛ خنداوړه xandāwáṛa	laughable
يالۍ /يالی yālay/yālə́i	ننګ nang	honor	ننګيالی nangyāláy ننګيالۍ nangyālə́i	honorable
غاړې /غاړی ğāṛay/ğāṛe	سندره sandə́ra	song	سندرغاړی sandərğā́ṛay سندرغاړې sandərğā́ṛe	singer
چک cak	سپين spin	white	سپين چک spinčák	whitish
ډله ḍala	لوب lob	root word of play	لوبډله lobḍála	team
هار hār	پړک pṛak	slap/clap	پړکهار pṛakahā́r	clapping/sounds of claps

Creating new words

Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes
'''Example:'''

Infinitive

This is called Kaṛnúmay in Pashto that is "the name of a verb". It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun.
Example: وکړل shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.

Double infinitives

These are formed by combining two infinitives

– either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive.

Simple infinitive	Prefixed infinitive	Double infinitive
تلل	راتلل	تلل راتلل
ګرځېدل	راګرځېدل	ګرځېدل راګرځېدل

– or by combining two simple infinitives:

Simple infinitive 1	Simple infinitive 2	Double infinitive
خوړل	څښل	خوړل څښل
وهل	ټکول	وهل ټکول

Verb

Pashto has three tenses: Past, present and future.
The future tense is the same as present tense with the exception of markers.
Aspect: Pashto in every tense has perfective aspect and imperfective aspect . The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action while the imperfective aspect indicates continuous or habitual action.
Pashto verbs are of four categories: simple verbs, prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs.
Prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs are separable.
Pashto verbs can be conjugated by the bases they have.
Present and imperative forms are formed on present bases. Past, optative, and infinitive forms are formed on past bases.
Based on the stems they classed as either single stemmed, two stemmed or multiple stemmed
Verbs agree in person and in number with either the objects or subjects of sentences, depending on tense and construction.
Agreement is indicated with verbal suffixes following the verb stem which indicate person and number.

Verbs: categories

Simple verbs

They are in the morpheme state.
Examples:

Infinitive	Transliteration	Meaning
تلل	tlə́l	to go
وتل	watə́l	to go out
ګرځېدل	gardzedə́l	to walk
کول	kawə́l	to do
خوړل	xwaṛә́l	to eat

Prefixed verbs

These are described below as doubly irregular.
They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.

Deictic prefixed verb

These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.

Prefix	Direction	Example	Example meaning
را rā	towards 1st person	راتلل rā tlә́l	to come
در dər/dar	towards 2nd person	درتلل dәr tlә́l	to go towards you
ور wər/war	towards 3rd person	ورکول wәr kawә́l	to give

Non-productive prefixed verbs

Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of.

Prefix	Transliteration	Example	Example meaning
کښې	kxe kṣ̌i	کښېوتل kxewatә́l	to drop into
کې	ke ki	کېښودل kex̌awdә́l	to put
نن	nəna	ننوتل nənawatә́l	to enter
پورې	pore	پورې ايستل pore istә́l	to traverse
تېر	ter	تېروتل terwatә́l	to get mistaken
پرا	prā	پرانيستل prānistә́l	to open
پرې	pre	پرېوتل prewatә́l	to lie down

Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix is separated from the verb stem by a second position clitic

a-initial verbs

These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/.
Examples:

Infinitive	Transliteration	Meaning
اڼول	aṇawə́l	to gather
استول	astawə́l	to send
اخيستل	axistə́l	to buy

Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that
they take the prefix و /wə́/ for perfective forms.
Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress.
Example: initial stress
'''Example: non-initial stress'''

Compound verbs

There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.

First category

These are formed by adding ول and ېدل verbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel.
Example:

Exceptions

There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.

Second category

These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel.
Examples:

Verbs: conjugation classes

These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above:First Conjugation Class: Simple Verbs and A-Initial VerbsSecond Conjugation Class: Prefixed VerbsThird Conjugation Class: Compound Verbs

Verbs: bases

Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense and aspect of a verb.
Aspect
The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement.
Tense
The present tense either by the absence of this suffix, or by the suffix ېږ /ég/.
For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ or ېد /ed/.
For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy.
Bases
Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:
1. present perfective
2. present imperfective
3. past perfective
4. past impefective
Inflection
In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:

a verbal suffix
an imperative or optative suffix, or
an adjectival suffix

Verbs: Single Stems

These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle.
These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.

First Conjugation Class

Transitive

Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"
Notes:

present imperfective base = stem
present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem
past imperfective base: stem+ ل /ə́l/
past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ل /əl/

Intransitive

Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"
Notes:

present imperfective base: stem+ ېږ /eg/
present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ېږ /eg/
past imperfective base: stem + ېد /ed/
past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem + ېد /ed/

Second Conjugation Class

In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring "
Notes:

present imperfective base = stem
present perfective base: stressed prefix + stem
past imperfective base: prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/
past perfective base: stressed prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/

Verbs: Two Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle
These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.

First Conjugation Class

The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:
Or they can be share no similar sounds
Example: the verb لیدل
In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle:
Notes:

present imperfective base = present stem
present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present stem
past imperfective base: past stem
past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past stem

Second Conjugation Class

As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Example one: the verb پرېښودل
Notes:

present imperfective base = present stem
present perfective base: stressed prefix + present stem
past imperfective base: prefix + past stem
past perfective base: stressed prefix + past stem

Verbs: Multiple Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle.
These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables.
These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged:
Examples:
Observation: either three stemmed or four stemmed
Observation: Four stems

Observation: Four Stems
Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور

Observation:Three stems:وړ for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives. Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem

Notes:
• Present imperfective base = imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: stem+
• Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem +

کول and کېدل

Here there use as main verbs are alluded to.
To the verb – to do: The brackete in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech
Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular.

To the verb – to become

Notes':'
• Present imperfective base = imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: stem+
• Past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past perfective stem +

Verbs: aspect

Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect and imperfective aspect . The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.

Stress

In both aspects the Stress |stress is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.

First conjugation

First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/.
Example:

Second conjugation

These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme.
Example:

Third conjugation

These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:

shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective
using the irregular perfective forms of the verbalizer.

Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer.
Example 1:

Example 2:

Verbs: verbal suffixes

Pashto utilises verbal suffixes .

Personal suffixes

Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number.

Number	Person	Gender	Verbal suffix	Dialect variation
Singular	1st person		م əm
Singular	1st person	Feminine	مه əma
Singular	2nd person		ې e
Singular	3rd person present		ي i
Singular	3rd person past	Masculine	verb stem only or ۀ / ه ə	و o – in Peshawar Dialect See below
Singular	3rd person past	Feminine	ه a
Plural	1st person		و u	ي i – in Wazirwola and Dzadrani
Plural	2nd person		ئ əɪ	است āst – in South Western
Plural	3rd person present		ي i
Plural	3rd person past	Masculine	ل əl
Plural	3rd person past	Feminine	ې e
Plural	-	-	-	-

It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.

Present imperfective tense

Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl .

Number	Person	Verbal suffix	Example	Translation
Singular	1st person	م əm	زه ګډېږم Zə gaḍéẓ̌əm	I am dancing
Singular	2nd person	ې e	ته ګډېږې Tə gaḍéẓ̌ē	You are dancing
Singular	3rd person	ي i	دی/دا ګډېږي Day/Dā gaḍéẓ̌i	He/She is dancing
Plural	1st person	و ū	موږ ګډېږو Muẓ̌ gaḍéẓ̌u	We are dancing
Plural	2nd person	ئ ai	تاسو ګډېږئ Tā́so gaḍéẓ̌ai	You are dancing
Plural	3rd person	ي i	دوی/هغوی ګډېږي Dúi/Hağúi gaḍéẓ̌i	They are dancing

Past imperfective tense

Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl .

Number	Person	Gender	Verbal suffix	Example	Translation
Singular	1st person		م əm	زه ګډېدم Zə gaḍedә́m	I was dancing
Singular	2nd person		ې e	تۀ ګډېدې Tə gaḍedé	You were dancing
Singular	3rd person	Masculine	ۀ ə	دی ګډېدۀ Day gaḍedә́	He was dancing
Singular	3rd person	Feminine	ه a	دا ګډېده Dā gaḍedá	She was dancing
Plural	1st person		و u	موږ ګډېدو Muẓ̌ gaḍedú	We were dancing
Plural	2nd person		ئ әi	تاسو ګډېدئ Tā́so gaḍedә́i	Your were dancing
Plural	3rd person		ل əl	دوی/هغوی ګډېدل Dúi/Hağúi gaḍedә́l	They were dancing
Plural	3rd person	Feminine	ې e	دوی/هغوی ګډېدې Dúi/Hağúi gaḍedé	They were dancing

Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender.
Example:

هغوی ګډېدل – can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing
هغوی ګډېدې – implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders by itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.

3rd Person Past Singular Masculine

Generally ه or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ is found also.

Plural suffix of وتل watəl

With وتل the plural suffix ل is not used instead:

Verbs: agreement

Intransitive verbs

As can be seen from the intransitive verb above – the verb agrees with the subject.

Agreement – transitive verbs

Ergative construction is used in the past tense of transitive verbs: the predicate agrees in person, number and gender with the object. The subject changes to into the oblique case.
In the present tense the transitive verb agrees with the subject: in person, number and gender.

Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat
Compare:
Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress
Compare:

Compound transitive verbs – split agreement

In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول agrees with the subject.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean

Verbs: participle

Present participle

The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل + ونک and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی.
Example ليکل – writer → ليک past imperfective stem → ليکونکی – writer

Past participle

Past participle suffix

The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.

Present perfect

This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 : Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 : Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل

Future perfect

Formed by به +present perfect

Past perfect

This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 : Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 : Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Example:

Agreement

Transitive verbs uses ergative construction: Past participle + verb "to be" agree with object; subject is in oblique case
Intransitive verbs: Past participle+ verb "to be" agree with the subject

Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل

Subject	Past participle	To be	To be past	Grammar
زه	پوخ شوی pox šə́way	يم yəm	وم wəm	1st person, singular, masculine
زه	پخه شوې paxa šə́we	يمه yəmá	ومه wəmá	1st person, singular, feminine
موږ	پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi	يو yu	وو wu	1st person, plural, masculine
موږ	پخې شوې paxe šə́we	يو yu	وو wu	1st person, plural, feminine
ته	پوخ شوی pox šə́way	يې ye	وې we	2nd person, singular, masculine
ته	پخه شوې paxa šə́we	يې ye	وې we	2nd person, singular, feminine
تاسو	پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi	يئ yəi	وئ əi	2nd person, plural, masculine
تاسو	پخې شوې paxe šə́we	يئ yəi	وئ əi	2nd person, plural, feminine
الو	پوخ شوی pox šə́way	دی day	وه wə	3rd person, singular, masculine
الوګان	پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi	دي di	وو wu	3rd person, plural, masculine
مڼه	پخه شوې paxa šə́we	ده da	وه wa	3rd person, singular, feminine
مڼې	پخې شوې paxe šə́we	دي di	وې we	3rd person, plural, feminine

Verbs: potential construction

Optative

The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy, ی-ay, ې
The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy, ی-ay, ې

Present potential

Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:

Past potential

Past potential 1

To indicate:

Event did not take place: مونږ تېر کال جوار کرلی شوه
Event carried out over extended period of time: مونږ ډرامې ليدلی شوې

Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:

Past potential 2

To indicate:

Where the event was actually carried out e.g. تۀ هلته په وخت ورسېدلی شوې؟

Formed by:
Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل

Auxiliary: "to be"

The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.

Present imperfective

Present imperfective tense of "to be":

Present perfective form

Present perfective tense of "to be":

Past form

Past tense of "to be":

Future tense

In Pashto the future tense is the same as the present tense with the exception that in the future tense the marker به is added.
In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used.
Future tense of "to be":

Imperative Form

Also known as Command Form

Person	Singular	Plural
2nd	ته شه tə sha-can	تاسو شئ tā́so yəi

"Wi" – usage

وي is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.

	Sentence	Meaning
وي	سړي دلته ناست وي	Men sit here
دي	سړي دلته ناست دي	Men are sitting here

Verbs: causative construction

This is used to make verbs that mean "to make do X" .
Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/.
The causative can either use the present stem or past stem – depending on the original verb.
Example:

خندل – original verb	خندول – causative verb
مه خانده má xānda	مه خندوه má xandawa
Don't laugh !	Don't make him/her laugh !

Verbs: imperative form

This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:

Number

The two verbal suffixes are employed:
Example:
The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.

Positive command

Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective an imperfective
In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.

Intensive

The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:

Compound verbs

Transitive

For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.
Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Intransitive

For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Negative command

Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/.
Compare:

Prefixed verbs

North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.

Verbs: phrasal verbs

These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.

Examples	Word	Root verb	Final verb	-	-	-	-	-
توره کول túra kawə́l	sword	to do	to perform a brave act	-	-	-	-	-
تڼۍ شلول taṇә́i šlawə́l	button	to tear	to toil/endeavour	-	-	-	-	-
ټېل وهل ṭel wahə́l	push	to beat	to shove	-	-	-	-	-
سا اخستل sā axәstә́l	breath	to take	to breathe		ګټه کول Gata Kawal	Stone	To earn much money	To save or earn money or something for a specific purpose

Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l

These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs. They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و /wə́/.

Kawə́l

Here are the forms of Kawə́l as a verbaliser :
As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect. She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the
personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.

Kedə́l

Here are the forms of Kedə́l as a verbaliser :
As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".

Future Tense

The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker" and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.

Future Expression

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.

With Present Imperfective Tense

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below.

To describe a future reference that is repeated or ongoing:
Present Imperfective verb base is also used where future marker like "tomorrow", "next week" etc. is used:
To contrast a future action with another future action:

Negative Future Expressions

With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.

First Conjugation Class

Simple Verbs

If there is a grammatical subject or object:
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

a-initial verbs

The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/. Thereby:
If there is a grammatical subject or object:
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: اخستل
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: استول
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
''Verb: اچول ''

Second Conjugation Class

First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed

Verb	Example	Future

Second: به /bә/ can then be placed
Before verb:
Or before the object

Third Conjugation Class

With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element.
Example: روغېدل

"Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense

The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.

Adverbs

Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree.
These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase.
Acting alone:
''Acting as adipositional phrase:''

Adverbs of time

These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items.
Common adverbs of time:

Adverb	Transliteration	Meaning
تل	təl	always
هر کله	har kә́la	whenever
هیڅ کله	hits kә́la	never
اوس	os	now
نن	nən	today
پرون	parún	yesterday
ګانده	gā́nda	tomorrow
سبا	sabā́	tomorrow
وختي	waxtí	early
وروسته	wrústa	later
پس	pas	later
مخکښې	mə́xkx̌e	before
لا	lā	yet

Adverbs of place

This informs us where something takes place.
Common adverbs of time:

Adverb	Transliteration	Meaning
پورته	pórta	above
پاسه	рā́sa	above
دننه	danə́na	inside
ننه	nə́na	inside
دباندي	dəbā́ndi	outside
بهر	bahár	outside
باندې	bā́nde	on top
لاندې	lā́nde	below
نژدې	nəždé	near
پوري	póre	around
لرې	lә́re	far
کښته	kx̌ə́ta	underneath
هيچرې	hičárta	nowhere
هيچرته	hičáre	nowhere

Demonstrative pronouns

These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns
Example sentence in Waziri:

Adpositions

Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.

Prepositions

List of prepositions

Preposition	Dialect variation	Meaning	Uses
د də	/de/, /ye/, /e/	of	Mark possession e.g. د سړي لاس To mark the objects of transitive nominalizations or gerunds To mark the subjects of intransitive nominalizations or gerunds Marks the item denoting the possessor or the holonym of which another adpositional phrase may denote the possessed item or be the meronym
لهlə	د də	from	It is only considered part of a circumposition/ambiposition. However, له /lə/ can function as a preposition of ablative function or of origin, when its object appears with ablative case marking. e.g. له پلاره راغلئ یم
بېbe		without	Considered as prefix. But can also be considered a preposition since the noun followed by بې shows ablative case-marking e.g. بې پلاره – with پلار being in the ablative case
پهpə	پر /pər/	on; at	Used as preposition to express location e.g. په مېز مې کېښود Used as part circumposition containing it may be used to express location e.g. په... باندې Can govern a noun that refers to a time of day e.g. په يوې بجې راشه
ترtər		till; than	Usually used as an ambiposition/circumpositions to express "up to, until" e.g. تر پېښور پورې لاړم As a preposition; is used in comparative and superlative constructions e.g. زه تر ماما دنګ يم
لکهlaká		like	As a preposition used as "like"e.g. لکه د زمري زورور يم

Ambipositions

Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions. These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements.
The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements:
The final element is likely to be one of these words:

	Transliteration	Meaning
لاندې	lā́nde	below
پسې	pəsé	after
نه	na
پورې	póre
سره	sará	with
کې/کښې	ke/kx̌e	on
باندې	bā́nde	on
څخه	tsә́xa
غوندې	ğwә́nde	like

Here is a list of the simple formations:

Second Component →	کښې... ... ke	نه.... ... na	لاندې... ...lā́nde	باندې... ... bā́nde	پسې... ... pəsé	پورې... ... póre	سره... ... sará	څخه... ...tsә́xa	وروستو... wrústo.
First Component ↓	کښې... ... ke	نه.... ... na	لاندې... ...lā́nde	باندې... ... bā́nde	پسې... ... pəsé	پورې... ... póre	سره... ... sará	څخه... ...tsә́xa	وروستو... wrústo.
...د də...		د...نه də...na 'from'	د...لاندې də...lā́nde 'under'		د... پسې də...pəsé 'after'	د... پورې də...póre 'up to, across'	د...سره də...sará 'with'		د...څخه də...tsә́xa 'from'
...له lə...		له...نه lə...na 'from'	له...لاندې lə...lā́nde 'under'				له...سره lə...sará 'with'		له...څخه lə...tsә́xa 'from'
...پر pər...	په... کښې pə...ke 'in, at, on'			په...باندې pə...bā́nde 'on top of, by means of'	په...پسې pə...pəsé 'after, behind'	پر... پورې pər...póre 'with'	په...سره pə...sará 'with'
...په pə...	په... کښې pə...ke 'in, at, on'			په...باندې pə...bā́nde 'on top of, by means of'	په...پسې pə...pəsé 'after, behind'		په...سره pə...sará 'with'
...تر tər...			تر...لاندې tər...lā́nde 'under'			تر...پورې tər...póre 'until, up to'			تر... وروستو tər...wrústo 'after'

Examples

	Example	Example's meaning
په... کښې	په سيند کښې	in the river
په... پسې	په ما پسې	after me
پر... باندې	په مېز باندې	on the table
له... سره	له سړي سره	with a man
تر... لاندې	تر مېز لاندې	under the table
له... څخه	له سړي څخه	from a man
له... نه	له سړي نه	from a man
د... نه	د سړي نه	from a man
تر... پورې	تر پېښور پورې	till Peshawar
تر... وروستو	تر خوراک وروستو	after food

The first element must be dropped when the object of the pre-position is a weak pronoun. Examples:

Example sentence	Meaning
سړی ور سره ځي	A man is going with him/her
سړي ور سره ځي	Men are going with him/her
چاړه مې در نه واخس	I took the knife from you
ليک ور باندې ايښی دی	The letter is on it

Sometimes in colloquial Pashto, the word له is dropped from نه and سره.

Phrases

Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.

With له.... نه

These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word
In some dialects له is replaced by د

	Component	Meaning
له.... نه پخوا له... نه مخکې	From + before	before
له...نه پس له...نه پسته له...نه ورستو له... نه وروستۀ	From + after	after
له...نه+ بهرر	From + outside	outside

Examples

Phrase	Sentence	Meaning
له.. نه پخوا	له تا نه پخوا راغله	She came before you
د...نه مخکې	ستا نه مخکې راغله	She came before you
له... نه وروستو	له تا نه وروستو راغله	She came after you
د... نه بهر	د ور نه بهر ولاړ و	He was standing outside the door

With د ... په

Examples:

	Meaning
د... په اړه də... pə aṛá	about
د... په شان də... pə šān	like
د... په وړاندې də... pə wṛā́nde	against/opposite
د... په پرتله də... pə partalá	in comparison to
د... له مخې də... lə mә́xe	according to
د... په ځای də...pə dzāy	instead of

Examples:
Note: the possessive phrase can be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.

	Sentence where د not dropped	Meaning	Sentence with possessive pronouns	Meaning
د... په اړه	د سړي په اړه يې څه ووې də saṛí pə aṛá ye tsə wә́ we	What did he/she say about the man	زما په اړه يې څه ووې zmā pə aṛá ye tsə wә́ we	What did he/she say about me
د... په شان	د سپوږمۍ په شان ښځه غواړم də spoẓ̌mә́i pa šān x̌ә́dza ğwāṛә́m	I want a wife like the moon	ستا په شان ښځه غواړم stā pa šān x̌ә́dza ğwāṛә́m	I want a wife like you
د... په وړاندې	د بلې ډلې په وړاندې يې وينه وکړه də bә́le ḍále pə wṛā́nde ye wә́ina wә́ kṛa	talked against the other party	ستا په وړاندې يې وينه وکړه stā pə wṛā́nde ye wә́ina wә́ kṛa	talked against you.
د... په پرتله	د پيشوګانو په پرتله سپي زيات مينه ناک وي də pišogā́no pə partalá spí zyāt minanā́k wi	In comparison to cats, dogs are more affection	زموږ په پرتله هغوی لټ دي zmuẓ̌ pə partalá hağúi laṭ di	In comparison to us, they are lazy
د... له مخې	د دې څېړنې له مخې دا ډېر ګټور دی də de tseṛә́ne lə mә́xe dā ḍer gaṭawár day	According to this research this is very beneficial	ستا له مخې څنګه شانتې سړی دی stā lə mә́xe tsə́nga šā́nte saṛáy day	According to you, what kind of a guy is he.
د... په ځای	د کابل په ځای کندهار ته لاړ شه də kābə́l pə dzāy kandahā́r tə lā́ṛ sha	Instead of Kabul go to Kandahar	زما په ځای بل کس ټاکل شوی دی zmā pə dzāy bəl kas ṭākə́l šə́way day	He has been elected instead of me

Adpositions and noun cases

Oblique case

Most common case. The object of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case.
Used with:

ته /tə/ 'to'
سره /səra/ ' with'
the prepositions د /də/ 'of' and په /pə/ 'at', plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two prepositions;
the circumposition له... نه /lə... na/ 'from/.

Example: سړی and ښځه are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case
Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښې

Ablative case

Used with:

له /lə/ 'from'; and also د /də/ having the same meaning 'from'
تر /tər/ 'from, originating from'
Circumposition containing تر /tər/, له /lə/; except له... نه /lə... na/ 'from/
په /pə/ the instrumental usage only found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object

Example: circumposition تر... پورې
With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of ' away from':
په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective:

Mixed ablative case and oblique cases

Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning.
Example: with سړی in oblique case
Example: with سړی in ablative case

Passive voice

Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs. The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l and a verbal complement.The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement.
The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل:
If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/.
As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone
This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head.

Adverbial Clauses

Pashto utilises conjunction phrases as adverbs.
Examples:

Conjunction	Transliteration	Literal meaning	English approximate
هيڅ کله نه	hits kә́la na	nothing when no	never, at no time
که هر څنګه	kə hər tsә́nga	if ever how	howsoever, in whatever way
راځه چې	rādzá che	come that	let's
تر اوسه پورې	tər ósa póre	till now up to/till	so far, as yet, up till now
تر دغه پورې	tər dáğa póre	till this till	as far as this
تر کله پورې	tər kә́la póre	till when till	till when?, how long?
تر کومه پورې	tər kóma póre	till where till	how far?, to where?

Particles

Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".

Existential

The word شته and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.

Sentence	Literal meaning	Meaning
پړنګ شته ؟ pṛāng šta ?	Tiger there-is/are ?	Is there a tiger?
نشته ná šta	not-there-is/are	There isn't

Modal Particles

Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause". چې can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.

Affirmative

که نه

Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/.
Affirmative Question Example:
Affirmative Statement Example:

Deontic

دې

The modal دې expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.

باید

The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity.

پکار دى

"Pəkā́r day" is also used as deontic clause

Emphatic

خو

The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis.
Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.

Possibility

ښایي / ښائي

The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې
The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"

کېدی شي

Kedáy ši which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe used

Vocative

The following vocatives have been noted:

Vocactive	Transliteration	Meaning	Example
اي	ai	hey !	اي نجلۍ ai njlə́i hey girl
اې	e	hey !	اې سړیه e saṛáya hey man
آ	ā	hey !	آ ښځې ā x̌ə́dze hey woman
الۍ	alə́i	oh !	الۍ دا دې څه وکړه alə́i dā de tsə wə́ kṛə oh what did you do
وئ	wə́i	darn it, ouch	وئ خوږ شوم wə́i xúẓ̌ šwəm

Wish

کاشکې

The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened.
It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish.
It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request.
Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry:

Nuance

In this section the nuances or the semantics in relation to specific words will be explained.

راوړل and راوستل

Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".

Tangible Objects

Example راوړل:
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass
Example راوستل:
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water

Intangible Objects

For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion.
But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.

Adjectives

As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning.
Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect

Adjective	Transliteration	Meaning	Nuance	Example Sentence
اغېزمن	ağezmán	affected	to describe the subject or object being influenced	زه له تا څخه اغېزمن شوم
اغېزمن	ağezmán	affected	to describe the subject or object being influenced	zə stā na ağezmán šwəm * I am affected by you
اغېزناک	ağeznā́k	effective	to describe the subject or object having the effective influence	ته اغېزناکه وينه کوې
اغېزناک	ağeznā́k	effective	to describe the subject or object having the effective influence	tə ağeznā́ka waina kawé You talk effectively

Slang

Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:

Slang	Literary	Meaning	Notes
بمبه راخوشې که bambá rā́ xwǝše ka	بمبه ولګوه bambá wə́ lagawa	Turn on the faucet/tap	خوشې means "set free/loose"; so a literal translation would be "Let loose the tap!"
غوړي مې په کټوۍ کې ور وويشتل ğwaṛí me pə kaṭwə́i ke war wə́ wištəl	غوړي مې په کټوۍ کښې ور واچول ğwaṛí me pə kaṭwə́i kx̌e war wā́čawəl	I have put the oil in the cooking pot	ويشتل means "to shoot e.g a gun"; so a literal translation would be "I flung the oil in the cooking pot"

Syntax

Pashto has [subject-object-verb word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb word order.
In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.

Phrasal syntax

Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.

Noun phrases

Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.

Adpositional phrases

The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

Verb phrases

Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.

Light verb constructions

Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions, two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb.
As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot.
The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs.
Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.

Elements in the verbal group

The verbal group in general Pashto

Certain particles can be inserted between:

The perfective prefix و /wə/́and its verb.
A prefix or pseudo-prefix and its verb.
The complement of a denominal verb and its verbalizer.

The particles that interact with verbs in this way are:

The modal clitics به /bə/ and دې /de/
The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics مې /me/, دې /de/, یې /ye/, and مو /mo/
The adverbial clitics خو /xo/ and نو /no/
The negatives نه /ná/ and مه /má/

Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress, the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.

Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase

The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.

Numbers

Cardinal numbers

Direct case, masculine

Pashto	Pronunciation
نشت	nasht	0
یو	yaw, yo	1
دوه	dwa	2
درې	dre	3
څلور	tsalor	4
پنځه	pindzə	5
شپږ	špəg/špəʐ	6
اووه	owə	7
اته	atə	8
نه، نهه	nə, nəha	9
لس	las	10
یوولس	yawolas	11
دوولس	dwolas	12
دیارلس، دیرلس	dyārlas, dyarlas	13
څوارلس، څورلس	tswarlas, tswārlas	14
پنځلس	pindzəlas	15
شپاړس	špāṛas	16
اووه‌لس	owəlas	17
اته‌لس	atəlas	18
نونس, نورلس	nunas, nurlas	19
شل	šəl	20
یوویشت	yavwišt	21
دوه‌ویشت	dwawišt	22
درویشت	dərwišt,	23
څلېرویشت	tsalerwišt	24
پنځه‌ویشت	pindzəwišt	25
شپږویشت	špagwišt	26
اوه‌ویشت	owəwišt	27
اته‌ویشت	atəwišt	28
نه‌ویشت	nəwišt	29
دېرش	derš	30
یودېرش	yawderš	31
دودېرش	dwaderš	32
دریدېرش	drederš	33
څلوردېرش	tsalorderš	34
پنځه‌دېرش	pindzəderš	35
شپږدېرش	špəgderš	36
اوه‌دېرش	owəderš	37
اته‌دېرش	atəderš	38
نه‌دېرش	nəderš	39
څلوېښت	tsalveṣ̌t	40
پنځوس	pindzos	50
شپېته	špetə	60
اویا	awyā	70
اتیا	atyā	80
نوي	nwi, nəwi	90
سل	səl	100
یوسلویو	yaw səlo yav	101
یوسلودوه	yaw səlo dwa	102
یوسلوشل	yaw səlo šəl	120
دوه‌سوه	dwa sawa	200
دوه سوه او لس	dwa sawa aw las	210
درې سوه	dre sawa	300
زر	zər	1000
یوزرویو	yaw zəro yaw	1001
یوزرودوه‌سوه او پنځه‌دېرش	yaw zəro dwa sawa aw pindzəderš	1235
لک	lak	100 000
ملیون	milyon	1 000 000
کروړ	kroṛ	10 000 000
ملیارد	milyārd	1 000 000 000

Ordinal numbers

Direct case, masc., sing.

1st لومړی lumṛai
2nd دويم dwaim
3rd درېيم drəyam
4th څلورم tsaloram
5th پنځم pindzam
6th شپږم špaẓ̌am
7th اووم uwam
8th اتم atam
9th نهم nəham
10th لسم lasam