Old Turkic
Old Turkic, also known as East Old Turkic, was a Siberian Turkic language spoken around East Turkistan and Mongolia. It was first discovered in inscriptions originating from the Second Turkic Khaganate, and later the Uyghur Khaganate, making it the earliest attested Common Turkic language. In terms of the datability of extant written sources, the period of Old Turkic can be dated from slightly before 720 AD to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.
Classification and dialects
Old Turkic can generally be split into two dialects, the earlier Orkhon Turkic and the later Old Uyghur. There is a difference of opinion among linguists with regard to the Karakhanid language, some classify it as another dialect of East Old Turkic, while others prefer to include Karakhanid among Middle Turkic languages; nonetheless, Karakhanid is very close to Old Uyghur. East Old Turkic and West Old Turkic together comprise the Old Turkic proper, though West Old Turkic is generally unattested and is mostly reconstructed through words loaned through Hungarian. East Old Turkic is the oldest attested member of the Siberian Turkic branch of Turkic languages, and several of its now-archaic grammatical as well as lexical features are extant in the modern Yellow Uyghur, Lop Nur Uyghur and Khalaj ; Khalaj, for instance, has retained a considerable number of archaic Old Turkic words despite forming a language island within Central Iran and being heavily influenced by Persian. Old Uyghur is not a direct ancestor of the modern Uyghur language, but rather the Western Yugur language; the contemporaneous ancestor of Modern Uyghur was the Chagatai literary language.East Old Turkic is attested in a number of scripts, including the Old Turkic script, the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Brahmi script, and the Manichaean script. The Turkic runiform alphabet of Orkhon Turkic was deciphered by Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893.
Phonology
Vowel roundness is assimilated through the word through vowel harmony. Some vowels were considered to occur only in the initial syllable, but they were later found to be in suffixes. Length is distinctive for all vowels; while most of its daughter languages have lost the distinction, many of these preserve it in the case of /e/ with a height distinction, where the long phoneme developed into a more closed vowel than the short counterpart.Old Turkic is highly restrictive in which consonants words can begin with: words can begin with,,,,,, and, but they do not usually begin with,,,,,,,,,,, or. The only exceptions are ?? and its derivatives, and some early assimilations of word-initial /b/ to /m/ preceding a nasal in a word such as ??.
Writing systems
The Old Turkic script is the alphabet used by the Göktürks and other early Turkic khanates during the 8th to 10th centuries to record the Old Turkic language.The script is named after the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia where early 8th-century inscriptions were discovered in an 1889 expedition by Nikolai Yadrintsev.
This writing system was later used within the Uyghur Khaganate. Additionally, a Yenisei variant is known from 9th-century Yenisei Kirghiz inscriptions, and it has likely cousins in the Talas Valley of Turkestan and the Old Hungarian alphabet of the 10th century. Words were usually written from right to left. Variants of the script were found in Mongolia and Xinjiang in the east and the Balkans in the west. The preserved inscriptions were dated between the 8th and 10th centuries.
Grammar
Cases
There are approximately 12 case morphemes in Old Turkic ; the table below lists Old Turkic cases following Marcel Erdal’s classification :| Case Suffixes | Examples | Translation | |
| Nominative | ∅ | köŋül-∅ | heart |
| Genitive | -nIŋ | Tämürniŋ | Tämür’s |
| Accusative I | -nI | bunï | this |
| Accusative II | -Ig/-Ug | kïzlarïg, Karlukug | girls, Karluk |
| Accusative III | -n | oglïmïn | my son’s |
| Dative | -ka | ordoka | to palace |
| Directive / Allative | -gArU | ävgärü | towards home |
| Locative | -tA/-dA | ävdä, suvlukta | in house, |
| Directive-Locative / Partitive-Locative | -rA | asra, bašra | below, at/towards/on head |
| Ablative | -dIn/-tIn | kaŋtïn | from father |
| Equative-Lative | -čA | tükägüčä | up to/till end |
| Instrumental | okun | with arrow | |
| Comitative | -lXgU | iniligü | together with young brother |
| Similative | -lAyU | yultuzlayu | like star |
Grammatical number
Old Turkic had 2 grammatical numbers: singular and plural. However, Old Turkic also formed collective nouns by a separate suffix ' e.g. tayagunuŋuz ‘your colts’. Unlike Modern Turkic, Old Turkic had 3 types of suffixes to denote plural:Suffixes except for -lAr is limitedly used for only a few words. In some descriptions, -t and -An may also be treated as collective markers. -t is used for titles of non-Turkic origin, e.g. tarxat ←tarxan 'free man'
Today, all Modern Turkic languages use exclusively the suffix of the '
Verb
Finite verb forms in Old Turkic always conjugate for person and number of the subject by corresponding suffixes save for the 3rd person, in which case person suffix is absent. This grammatical configuration is preserved in the majority of Modern Turkic languages, except for some such as Yellow Uyghur in which verbs no longer agree with the person of the subject.Tense
Old Turkic had a complex system of tenses, which could be divided into six simple and derived tenses, the latter formed by adding special verbs to the simple tenses.| Tense | Positive | Negative |
| Imperfect Aorist | -Ur | -mAz |
| Preterite | -dI | |
| Perfect Participle | -mIš | -mAdOk |
| Future | -dAčI | -mAčI |
| Vivid Past | -yOk | -mAyOk |
| Imminent Future | -gAlIr |
Hapax legomena
Some suffixes are attested as being attached to only one word and no other instance of attachment is to be found. Similarly, some words are attested only once in the entire extant Old Turkic corpus.Denominal
The following have been classified by Gerard Clauson as denominal noun suffixes.| Suffix | Usages | Translation |
| -ča | anča | thus, like that |
| -ke | sigirke yipke | sinew string/thread |
| -la/-le | ayla tünle körkle | thus, like that yesterday, night, north beautiful |
| -suq/-sük | bağïrsuq | organs |
| -ra/-re | içre | inside, within |
| -ya/-ye | bérye yırya | here north |
| -čïl/-čil | igčil | sickly |
| -ğïl/-gil | üçgil qïrğïl | triangular grey haired |
| -nti | ékkinti | second |
| -dam/-dem | tegridem | god-like |
| tïrtï:/-türti | ičtirti | inside, within |
| -qı:/-ki | ašnuki üzeki ebdeki | former on or above being in the house |
| -an/-en/-un | oğlan eren | children men, gentlemen |
| -ğu:/-gü | enčgü tuzğu buğrağu | tranquil, at peace food given to a traveller as a gift being like a camel stud, aggressive |
| -a:ğu:/-e:gü: | üčegü ičegü | three together being inside human body, internal organ |
| -daŋ/-duŋ | otuŋ izdeŋ | firewood track, trace |
| -ar/-er | birer azar | one each a few |
| -layu:/-leyü | börileyü | like a wolf |
| -daš/-deš | qarïndaš yerdeš | kinsman compatriot |
| -mïš/-miš | altmïš yetmiš | sixty seventy |
| -gey | küçgey | violent |
| -çaq/-çek and -çuq/-çük | ïğïrčaq | spindle-whorl |
| -q/-k -aq/-ek -ïq/-ik/-uq/-ük | ortuq | partner |
| -daq/-dek and -duq/-dük | bağırdaq beligdek burunduq | wrap terrifying nose ring |
| -ğuq/-gük | çamğuq | objectionable |
| -maq/-mek | kögüzmek | breastplate |
| -muq/-a:muq | solamuk | left-handed |
| -naq | baqanaq | "frog in a horse's hoof" |
| -duruq/-dürük | boyunduruq | yoke |
Deverbal
The following have been classified by Gerard Clauson as deverbal suffixes.| Suffix | Usages | Translation |
| -a/-e/-ı:/-i/-u/-ü | oprı adrı keçe egri köni ötrü | hollow,valley branched,forked evening, night crooked straight, upright, lawful then, so |
| -ğa/-ge | kısğa öge bilge kölige tilge | short wise wise shadow slice |
| -ğma/-gme | tanığma | riddle, denial |
| -çı/-çi | otaçı: okıçı | healer priest, preacher |
| -ğuçı/-güçi | ayğuçı bitigüçi | councilor scribe |
| -dı/-di | üdründi ögdi alkadı sökti | chosen,parted,separated,scattered praised praised bran |
| -tı/-ti | arıtı uzatı tüketi | completely, clean lengthily completely |
| -du | eğdu umdu süktü | curved knife desire, covetousness campaigning |
| -ğu:/-gü | bilegü kedgü oğlağü | whetstone clothing gently nurtured |
| -ingü | bilingü etingü yeringü salıŋu | being in the know being prepared disgusted sling |
| -ğa:ç/-geç | kışgaç | pincers |
| -ğuç/-güç | bıçgüç | scissors |
| -maç/-meç | tutmaç | "saved" noodle dish |
| -ğut/-güt | alpağut bayağut | warrior merchant |