Surveillance aircraft
Surveillance aircraft or observation aircraft are aircraft used for aerial surveillance. They are primarily operated by military forces and government agencies in roles including intelligence gathering, maritime patrol, battlefield and airspace surveillance, observation, and law enforcement.
Surveillance aircraft usually carry limited defensive armament, if any. They do not require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics and may be modified civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons and unmanned aerial vehicles.
History
Pre World War I
The French were the first to adopt hydrogen-filled balloons on the battlefield for reconnaissance. In the early 1790s, the French would deploy a hydrogen-filled balloon that held two soldiers: one who possessed a telescope, and the other would relay information to troops on the ground. These balloons did not cross into enemy lines; they were deployed on friendly lines for the purpose of surveillance from a higher point of view. These balloons formed the first air force in 1794, which was referred to as the Compagnie d'Aéronautiers. Also in 1794, during the Battle of Fleurus, the French Aerostatic Corps balloon L'Entreprenant remained afloat for nine hours. French officers used the balloon to observe the movements of the Austrian Army, dropping notes to the ground for collection by the French Army and also signaled messages using semaphores.This method of surveillance would eventually be adopted by the Union Army in the Civil War. American inventor Thadeus Low proposed this invention to President Abraham Lincoln, to which a similar idea would be adopted. The Union Army would use balloons that could hold as many as five soldiers, and they would use telegraphs to relay information.
In the 1880s, a British meteorologist named Douglas Archibald experimented with unmanned surveillance vehicles. Douglas rigged cameras to a kite and used a long cable attached to the kite's string to activate the shutter. This invention would eventually catch the eyes of American Army Corporal William Eddy.
During the Spanish-American War of 1898, Eddy adopted his own version of Archibald’s kite-mounted camera. Eddy’s kite was responsible for creating the first-ever military aerial surveillance photos.
World War I
One of the first aircraft used for surveillance was the Rumpler Taube during World War I, when aviators like Fred Zinn evolved entirely new methods of reconnaissance and photography. The translucent wings of the plane made it very difficult for ground-based observers to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French also called this plane "the Invisible Aircraft", and it is sometimes also referred to as the "world's very first stealth plane". German Taube aircraft were able to detect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg.Aircraft were initially used for reconnaissance missions. The pilots of these initial aircraft would track the movement of enemy troops using photographs. These photos would be used to understand enemy formations and create maps that would eventually be used by infantry. By 1916, these aircraft would assist in the spotting of artillery, and the guidance and coordination of infantry. These aircraft forced enemy troops to camouflage their position to hide from aerial observation.
Eventually, surveillance aircraft would be highly valued due to commander’s reliance on their information. However, surveillance aircraft would fly a low, slow, and predictable flight path, and with the introduction of aerial combat, surveillance aircraft were an easy target.
World War II
Pre-war, the British built and flew two Fleet Shadower aircraft, including the General Aircraft Fleet Shadower, that could follow and observe the enemy fleet at a distance. However, they were made obsolete by the 1940s with the introduction of airborne radar.Air observation posts were developed during World War II. Light aircraft such as the Auster were used by the British Royal Artillery for artillery spotting. By the mid-1960s, air observation was generally taken over by light observation helicopters.
Cold War
Spy flights were a source of major contention between the United States and the Soviet Union during most of the 1960s. Due to the difficulty of surveillance in the USSR, US policymakers established the National Reconnaissance Office. To combat this difficulty of surveillance, the US military developed the U2. This aircraft could fly at altitudes of 70,000 feet to avoid detection from KGB surveillance. The U2 was also equipped with a Hycon 73B camera. This camera was capable of capturing details as small as 2.5 feet wide. In 1962, a U2 captured images that discovered nuclear missiles in Cuba. These photos would initiate what is known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.Aerial Reconnaissance was dangerous: Out of 152 cryptologists who died in the Cold War, 64 of them were participating in aerial reconnaissance missions. During the time period of 1945-1977, more than forty reconnaissance aircraft were shot down in the European and Pacific areas.
The US Military originally used standard aircraft like B-29s for reconnaissance missions. Eventually, variants of the aircraft were designed for reconnaissance, e.g. the C-130 and RC-130. These repurposed aircraft were sometimes referred to as “ferret” aircraft, and intelligence personnel commanding these aircraft were nicknamed “backenders”.
The United States also performed surveillance using repurposed Ryan Firebee unmanned target drones. Variants of these vehicles, designated the Model 147, could fly for 2500 miles.
In May 1991, the Department of the Navy reported that at least one UAV was airborne at all times during Operation Desert Storm.
War on terror
During the global war on terror, the US military developed defenses to surveillance aircraft to combat surveillance use. The United States military used precision cameras, drones that detect drones, and direct-energy weapons that disrupt control links and GPS navigation.Roles
Maritime patrol
The main components of maritime surveillance consist of sightings from ship captains and aircraft pilots. However, due to the radar horizon, surveillance aircraft are preferred as they can identify targets hundreds of miles further than vessels. An example of this today is the Coast Guard’s use of unmanned aerial systems to improve their capabilities while reducing the risk for service members. Currently, the Coast Guard has roughly 250 drone certified officers across the US. The main uses of UASs within maritime activities are search and rescue operations and responding to different environmental disasters. The Coast Guard’s use of unmanned drones specifically led them to creating an “Unmanned Systems Strategic Plan.” This plan would expand the use of current aerial surveillance systems to new challenges such as drug trafficking surveillance, migrant interdiction, and ice operations. With regards to environmental tasks, UASs will be expanded to address marine safety, fishing activity, and navigational uses. The Coast Guard outlines the future of aerial surveillance in maritime patrol as improving current UAS systems, integrating improved sensors and AI/ML, and creating more organized command and control plans/operations.Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of flying continuously for many hours, with a wide range of sensors. Such aircraft include the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique, the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora. Smaller ship-launched observation seaplanes were used from World War I through World War II.
Law enforcement
Unmanned aircraft systems are being increasingly deployed by U.S. law enforcement agencies. In August 2023, a Congressional Research Service to members of Congress described the multiple uses of these aircraft, including general surveillance and intelligence or evidence gathering. Unmanned surveillance drones can also be used to identify the locations of suspects who may be hiding or analyze the physical layout of a room before officers enter. Furthermore, unmanned surveillance drones can be used by law enforcement to light up large areas where it may be dark and difficult for officers to use traditional means of illumination. There are a few federal laws that apply to the use of unmanned surveillance systems, the Federal Aviation Administration currently only has 2 options for the use of this technology by law enforcement. The first is that they can only operate them under 400 feet and need to maintain visual of the aircraft. Second, operators of the aircraft need to receive specific license and certifications to operate them. In response to the few and vague laws, the Department of Justice and Department of Homeland Security has created policies to regulate the use and deployment of these drones domestically.Predator UAVs have been used by the US for border patrol.
Battlefield and airspace surveillance
Current military applications
surveillance aircraft have been "deployed or are under development in many countries, including Israel, Iran, the UK, the United States, Canada, China, India, South Africa and Pakistan." Most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes.Several countries adapt aircraft for electronic intelligence gathering. The Beech RC-12 Super King Air and Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint are examples of this activity.
Unmanned surveillance UAVs include both airships—such as Sky Sentinel and HiSentinel 80—and airplanes.