Neostoicism
Neostoicism was a philosophical movement that arose in the late 16th century from the works of Justus Lipsius, and sought to combine the beliefs of Stoicism and Christianity. Lipsius was Flemish and a Renaissance humanist. The movement took on the nature of religious syncretism, although modern scholarship does not consider that it resulted in a successful synthesis. The name "neostoicism" is attributed to two Roman Catholic authors, Léontine Zanta and Julien-Eymard d'Angers.
Background
made reference to "new stoic" ideas earlier in the 16th century, but the denotation is not relevant to neostoicism. Antonio de Guevara in 1528 published a flattering biography of Marcus Aurelius, then considered a paragon of Stoic virtues.Neostoicism is usually said to have been founded by Flemish humanist Justus Lipsius. It was in some aspects anticipated by Giphanius, who had in common with Lipsius the publisher Christophe Plantin. Plantin published the Lucretius edition by Giphanius, and his circle entertained related ideas with some influence of Lucretius.
Plantin is considered to have had Familist connections. More definitely, Nicolette Mout takes it to be likely that Lipsius was involved with a Hiëlist group. The relevance to neostoicism lies in the Nicodemism of this Familist fraction.
Lucretius was an author from the Epicurean school, and Epicureanism has traditionally been considered as antipodal to Stoicism. In fact, however, the Epicurean and Stoic schools had in common a material and deterministic view of natural philosophy. They differed on ethics. It was the discrimination made by Lipsius, that the materialism and determinism of the Stoics should be largely rejected, that opened up the possibility to present a neostoicism more compatible with Christian beliefs. The later Fundamenta juris gentium et naturae of Christian Thomasius was a comparable project with an Epicurean basis.
Origins of neostoicism
During his time in the Northern Netherlands, Lipsius published his two most significant works: De Constantia and Politicorum sive Civilis doctrinae libri sex, short name Politica. De constantia sets out the foundation for neostoic thought. It is a dialogue between the characters Lipsius and Langius. They explore aspects of contemporary political predicaments by reference to the classical Greek and pagan Stoicism, in particular, that found in the writings of Seneca the Younger.At this period Stoic teachings were known mainly through the Latin authors Cicero and Seneca, who had concentrated on Stoic ethics. Both Lipsius and Michel de Montaigne found interesting in Seneca the treatment of the concepts of apatheia and ataraxia, largely to the exclusion of Cicero's handling of Stoic ethical concepts, and innovated with an emphasis on self-preservation and management of the passions. Montaigne, however, became more of an opponent of Stoicism, a development towards scepticism that Charles Larmore regards as gradual and linked to his writing of the Essays.
Lipsius was introduced to Seneca by Muretus, a celebrated stylist of humanist Latin, who wrote that some of Stoic doctrine was foolishness. Lipsius, on the other hand, took an interest in reconciling Christian and Stoic morality, bringing in the writings of Epictetus. He did so during the early years of the Eighty Years' War, and in response to the troubled times in the Low Countries it caused. His systematised version had standing for some two centuries. Both Lipsius and his reading of Seneca provoked criticisms of Stoicism in general, which later scholarship has countered by the recovery of original Stoic texts.
As Sellars puts it, "a Neostoic is a Christian who draws on Stoic ethics, but rejects those aspects of Stoic materialism and determinism that contradict Christian teaching." Lipsius further developed neostoicism in his treatises Manuductionis ad stoicam philosophiam and Physiologia stoicorum, both published in 1604. Jonathan Israel considers these works to be appeals to Netherlanders to reject patriotism and confessional zealotry, instead working within a moral and political framework around peaceful actions and preservation of good order. The setting has led to neostoicism, which became fashionable, being labelled a "crisis philosophy".
Neo-stoic authors
The work of Guillaume du Vair, Traité de la Constance, was another important influence in the neo-stoic movement. Where Lipsius had mainly based his work on the writings of Seneca, du Vair emphasized Epictetus.Pierre Charron came to a neo-stoic position through the impact of the French Wars of Religion. He made a complete separation of morality and religion.
Neo-stoic practical philosophy
The project of neostoicism has been described as an attempt by Lipsius to construct "a secular ethics based on Roman Stoic philosophy." He did not endorse religious toleration in an unqualified way: hence the importance of a morality not tied to religion. Bement wrote:No rigidly consistent doctrine emerges from the neostoic revival, but two important strains develop, one confirming the contemporary predilection for the active life, the other finding expression in retreat and isolation from the world.
According to Hiller,
Lipsius utilized both Seneca and Tacitus to create a coherent system for the management of public and private life in war-torn northern Europe.
In the introduction to his Politica, Lipsius defined its aim as addressing rulers, where De constantia was for those who should obey and endure. Neostoicism allowed for authoritarian enforcement of order, and the use of force. Papy writes in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Lipsius's lifelong project was to transform contemporary moral philosophy through a new reading of the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca, while also revitalizing contemporary political practice by drawing on the insights provided by the Roman historian Tacitus.
This statement leaves open the question of the relationship of Tacitus to neostoicism. A conventional answer given by Waszink is that Tacitus serves as a source of "examples and guidelines for the modern prince and subject." Waszink also considers, however, that the argument of the Politica, and its practical philosophy, can be understood without the Stoic connections.
Neostoicism held that the basic rule of good life is that a person should not yield to the passions, but submit to God. A way to this teaching was an equation made in Physiologia Stoicorum between fate and divine providence. The intended sense of "constancy" in Lipsius is "calm acceptance of the inevitable." But in fact in De Constantia Lipsius follows Boethius and later Christian teachings to distinguish between divine providence and fate, the prima causa in nature. Lipsius there argued for fate as a by-product of divine providence, and for free will.
The Stoic view was that acting on passions amounted to faulty reasoning. Consequently the control of the passions came down to reasoning more correctly, avoiding mistakes they could cause. Calm can be achieved because material pleasures and sufferings are irrelevant.
Influence
Lipsius was a humanist leader of international reputation, and numerous identifiable followers. He corresponded with hundreds of other humanists.Views of the Lipsius circle
Scholarship recognises a "Lipsius circle". The terms "Lipsian" and "Lipsianism" are used, the latter in reference in particular to his influence in Central and Eastern Europe. Waszink notes that "Lipsian" at times is used as if it were a synonym for "neostoic" while covering all the thought of Lipsius.Maurice De Wulf writing in his Histoire de la philosophie médiévale took the view that Lipsius was an erudite rather than a philosopher, founded no school, and had few disciples, mentioning only Caspar Schoppe. In contrast Richard Tuck described the effort of Benito Arias Montano, a Familist collaborator of Plantin and long-term friend and correspondent of Lipsius, as influencing in Spain Pedro de Valencia and engaged in theoretical work to go beyond the "Stoicism and scepticism of the Lipsian circle".
Aside from neostoicism, Lipsius impressed others also with his Latin style, scholarly editions and political thinking. Charles Nauert casts doubt on whether there was a broad-based movement attached to neostoicism, commenting on "revived forms of ancient philosophy", including voguish neostoicism as the essence of Roman "moral earnestness", that none "gained a profound hold on the conscience of more than a few scattered individuals." In the first chapter of his book Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau, Brooke questions whether as much of the political thought of Lipsius should be attributed definitely to neostoicism as had been asserted by Gerhard Oestreich.
Literature
Neostoicism had a direct influence on later writers, particularly in Spain and England. Among Spanish writers there were Francisco de Quevedo, and Juan de Vera y Figueroa, among English writers Francis Bacon and Joseph Hall. Later in France there were Montesquieu and Bossuet. According to Saarinen, neo-stoic ideas are relevant to many Calvinist authors, of whom he mentions Theodor Zwinger.In the Habsburg Monarchy
promoted neostoicism in Spain, as an editor of an Epictetus edition published in 1600. Later Quevedo published his Doctrina Estoica, continuing efforts to bridge the gap between Stoicism and Christian beliefs. Virgilio Malvezzi, called "the Seneca of the Italian language" by Benedetto Croce, was a member of the Italian coterie at Philip IV's court during this same period.During the lifetime of Lipsius, the Habsburg monarchy, which included the Spanish Netherlands, had capitals at Madrid and Prague. Lipsius was widely read in Bohemia and Hungary. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor did not approve of the warlike Spanish policy in the Netherlands, thought of as within the Empire, of Philip II of Spain. Zdeněk Vojtěch Popel z Lobkovic read much in Lipsius. Nicolaus Vernulaeus who became historiographer to Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor drew in his Institutiones politicae on neostoicism and its revised version by Adam Contzen, a Jesuit follower of Lipsius. János Rimay was a Hungarian neo-stoic poet interested in a national revival in Hungary.