Cephalic index


The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length. It is used to categorize dog and cat breeds. In humans, it serves diagnostic purposes for some disorders. It has also been used in the modelling of human migrations to categorize remains.

Historic use in anthropology

Early anthropology

The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool to categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.
The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.
In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic, mesaticephalic, or brachycephalic cephalic index or cranial index.
File:Otmaa1917 1-1-.jpg|thumb|The children of the Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in June 1917, with loss of hair after fighting measles: among them, Tatiana had the skull with least cephalic index.

Indices

Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:
FemalesMalesScientific termMeaningAlternative term
< 75< 75.9dolichocephalic'long-headed'
75 to 8376 to 81mesaticephalic'medium-headed'mesocephalic; mesocranial
> 83> 81.1brachycephalic'short-headed'brachycranial

Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest, and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.

Controversy

The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by the Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry. Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.
Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.
In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape. Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage."
In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.
Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate. In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "American environment" which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.

Vertical cephalic index

The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio. In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic, orthocranic, or hypsicranic cephalic index or cranial index.

Medicine

The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections. The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings. The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations. It can be measured for prenatal infants in the womb using obstetric ultrasound, and a value of 78.3% ± 8% is considered normal.

Modern use in animal breeding

The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.

Brachycephalic animals

A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short. Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic". Because of health issues brachycephaly is regarded in some countries as "qualzucht", which literally translates to "torture breeding" as it often leads to brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.

List of brachycephalic dogs

A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.

List of mesaticephalic canids

Note: Almost all canidae are mesaticephalic
Note: Almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic