Mandaeans
Mandaeans , also known as Mandaean Sabians or simply as Sabians, are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet.
They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practise baptism, as well as among the earliest adherents of Gnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives. The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic, an Eastern Aramaic language, before they nearly all switched to Mesopotamian Arabic or Persian as their main language.
After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed with most of the community relocating to Iran, Syria and Jordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond the Middle East.
The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious persecution over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians, Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to Baháʼís in Iran. By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.
There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide. About 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia and between 10,000 and 20,000 in Sweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans. There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in Jordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.
Etymology
The name "Mandaean" comes from the Mandaic word manda, meaning "to have knowledge".In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called Sabians, a Quranic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups. The etymology of the Arabic word is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the active participle of the Arabic root --, meaning 'converts'. Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an Aramaic root meaning 'to baptize'.
History
Origin
According to a theory first proposed by Ignatius of Jesus in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in Judea and later migrated east to the Mesopotamian Marshes. This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which Biblical scholars like Rudolf Bultmann believed capable of shedding new light on the development of early Christianity. However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Judean origin thesis, which by World War II was again largely deserted by scholars. It was revived in the 1960s by Rudolf Macúch; it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley and Şinasi Gündüz. According to Macúch, the eastward migration from the Roman province of Judea to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as Kurt Rudolph think it probably took place in the third century.There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in Sasanian-ruled Mesopotamia in the fifth century. According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in Edessa in late antiquity. Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan Valley, as well as another group of Mandaeans who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.
There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Yardena has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism. Mara ḏ-Rabuta is found in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. They formally refer to themselves as Naṣuraiia, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Another early self-appellation is bhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes. The bit manda is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara and bit tušlima in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" and "house of Truth in Israel."
File:The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg|left|thumb|The Damascus Document, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls
The Mandaic language, is a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, notable for its abundant use of vowel letters in writing and the amount of Iranian and Akkadian language influence on its lexicon, especially in the area of religious and mystical terminology. Mandaic is influenced by Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, in addition to Akkadian and Parthian.
A priest holds the title of Rabbi and a place of worship is called a Mashkhanna. According to Mandaean sources such as the Haran Gawaita, the Nasuraiia inhabited the areas around Jerusalem and the River Jordan in the 1st century CE. There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq. Scholars, including Kurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with the Jewish sect of the Nasoraeans. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism. According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia and also from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. According to the Mandaean Society in America, Mani was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.
Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem." The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by Rishama Salah Choheili states:
Parthian and Sasanian period
A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in Elymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants of Elymais were Mandaeans. Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones. Under Parthian and early Sasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection. The situation changed by the ascension of Bahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealous Zoroastrian high priest Kartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.The persecutions instigated by Kartir seems to temporarily erase Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however can still be found in Mandaean magical bowls and lead strips which were produced from the 3rd to the 7th century.
Islamic period
The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in, when their leader, Anush bar Danqa, is said to have appeared before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be John the Baptist, who is also mentioned in the Quran by the name Yahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as People of the Book. However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled to Baghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.Mandaeans appear to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center. Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' 'Sabians' who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.
The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah, even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.
It has been suggested by some scholars that Harranian intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such as Thābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans, though most scholars believe they were adherents of the pagan astral religion of Harran.
Early modern period
Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as Yahya Bihram. Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.
Modern Iraq and Iran
Following the First World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected Iraq and Iran. Owing to the rise of Arab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans have seen the increased use of Arabic, with Mandaic being dropped as a language by the Mandaeans. With the rise of secularism in Iraq, more Mandaeans aimed to follow the secular way of life, with a lot of Iraqi Mandaeans abandoning daily baptisms, instead weekly ones, and for some monthly. By the 70s to 80s the Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.Mandeans, who mostly lived in rural parts of Maysan Governorate, migrated to large cities such as Baghdad and Basra. This caused a major change in the community, as they transitioned from traditionalism to modernism. The future generation entered the world of politics. Some of them became leaders in the Communist Party. Some of them entered the Baath Party and the rest of the parties. During the time of Abdul Karim Qasim persecution decreased. Later under Saddam Hussein, the Mandaean community flourished in Iraq. They were given permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their places of worship. A decree was issued in 1972, allowing Mandeans to have holiday and enjoy during their festivals.
In Iraq, Mandaeans were renowned goldsmiths and silversmiths, particularly in Baghdad, where they operated shops in Al-Nahr Street, Shorjah, Qishla, Rusafa, Al-Karimat, Al-Azramli, and Al-Fahhama on the Al-Karkh side. Many Mandaeans also held prominent positions in the government. Lamia Abbas Amara served as Iraq’s cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative to UNESCO in Paris from 1973 to 1975. Poet Abdul Razzaq Abdul was a cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information, while astronomer Abdul Azim Al-Sabti played a key role in establishing the Erbil Observatory on Mount Korek, the largest observatory in the Middle East. In 2001, Saddam granted them the title of "Golden Sect". He pledged to build more Mandaean temples. Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilow met Saddam in 2001, an event televised in Iraq. The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on the land donated by the government.
According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000. The 2003 American invasion of Iraq and the war that followed brought more troubles to Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of ISIS forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death. It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.
The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book, lost this status after the Iranian Revolution. However, despite this, Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book. In 2009, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.