Jê–Tupi–Carib languages
Jê–Tupi–Carib is a proposed language family composed of the Macro-Jê, Tupian and Cariban languages of South America. Aryon Rodrigues based this proposal on shared morphological patterns. In an earlier proposal, Rodrigues had also proposed a Tupí-Cariban language family. or Mason's "Macro-Tupí-Guaranían" family which groups Tupian together with Bora–Witoto and Zaparoan.
However, in some cases, similarities among the language families are clearly due to more recent linguistic diffusion, as with Tupian and Jê languages in the lower Tocantins-Mearim area. Linguistic diffusion among Jê, Tupian, Cariban, Arawakan, and Trumai languages is also evident among the languages of the Xingu Indigenous Park.
Comparison
Nikulin (2015)
Nikulin compared the vocabulary of Proto-Macro-Jê, Proto-Tupí, and Proto-Carib. In this comparison, only four matches were found among all three proto-languages: 'name', 'tooth', 'to eat', and 'ear'.| Meaning | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupí | Proto-Karib |
| ‘we’ | *ka | *oɾʸe / *oɾʸo=,*Vy= | *apina, *kɨwɨ-ɾə |
| ‘two’ | *ɾey | not reconstructible | *atyəkə |
| ‘I’ | *iK=, *ba= | *õn / *o= | *əwɨ-ɾə |
| ‘eye’ | *ⁿdʌm | *=eča | *=ənu |
| ‘you’ | *aC=, *ka= | *ẽn / *e= | *əmə-ɾə |
| ‘fire’ | *ʆɯm | *=atʸa | *wapoto |
| ‘tongue’ | *ʆɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy / *ɲɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy | *kʸũ | *nuɾu |
| ‘stone’ | *kɾaT ~ *kɾaK | *wita | *təpu |
| ‘name’ | *yit | *=et | *=ətetɨ |
| ‘hand’ | *ⁿbo | *po / *ⁿpo | *=əmiya |
| ‘to die’ | *tɯC | *pap | *ɾəməpə |
| ‘to drink’ | *ʆop / *yop | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ənɨɾɨ |
| ‘louse’ | *ⁿgot, *tit | *ⁿkɨp | *ayamə |
| ‘moon’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t | *wačɨ | *nunnə |
| ‘nail’ | *pṼ=ʆay | *po=ape / *ⁿpo=ape | *=amoti |
| ‘blood’ | *ʆVⁿbV / *yVⁿbV | *=Vʔɨ | *munu |
| ‘one’ | *piyit | not reconstructible | *əwinə |
| ‘tooth’ | *ʆɔy / *yɔy | *=ãỹ | *=ə |
| ‘new’ | *tʌbⁿ | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘dry’ | *tVgⁿ | *ⁿkãŋ | *umɨna |
| ‘liver’ | *ⁿbaT ~ *ⁿbaK | *pɨʔa | *=əɾe |
| ‘to eat’ | *ku | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ətəku |
| ‘tail’ | *ⁿbɯn | *=uway | *=kɨ |
| ‘this’ | *toC | not reconstructible | *tə |
| ‘hair’ | *ʆi | *=ap | *tipotɨ |
| ‘water’ | *ⁿbiVk | *kʼɨ | *tuna |
| ‘nose’ | *ʆĩya / *ɲĩya | *ãpɨy | *=əwna |
| ‘not’ | *tɔ̃T ~ *tɔ̃K | *=ãm | *=ɾa, *=pɨɾa |
| ‘mouth’ | *ʆaɾᵊ / *yaɾᵊ | *=ẽn | *mɨta |
| ‘ear’ | *ʆĩp=pV / *ɲĩp=pV | *apɨ | *pana |
| ‘that’ | *nã | not reconstructible | *mə |
| ‘bird’ | *pɾɤy,*ⁿbVkɾa | not reconstructible | *toɾono |
| ‘bone’ | *ʆik / *yik | *kãŋ | *ye |
| ‘sun’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t, *kɾVPV | *ⁿkʷat | *titi |
| ‘tree’ | *kop | *kʼɨp | *yeye |
| ‘ashes’ | *ⁿbɾʌk | not reconstructible | *əɾuno |
| ‘to give’ | *ʆɔ̃p / *ɲɔ̃p | *=ũm | *utu |
| ‘rain’ | *ⁿdVy | *mãn | *konopo |
| ‘fish’ | *mĩKnũ | *ɨp, *potʸ, *poɾʸɨp | *woto, *kana |
| ‘neck’ | *ʆok- / *yok- | *wut | *pɨmɨ |
| ‘breast’ | *kɤp ~ *kɛp | *ⁿkãm | *manatɨ |
| ‘leaf’ | *ʆoyᵊ, *ʆaɾɔ | *=epʷ | *yaɾe |
| ‘to come’ | *tɛ, *mɔ̃ŋ | *wut | *ətepɨ |
| ‘to kill’ | *paT ~ *paK | *aku | *wə |
| ‘foot’ | *paɾᵊ | *pɨ / *ⁿpɨ | *pupu |
| ‘to sit’ | *ɲɯ̃ p | *in | not reconstructible |
| ‘root’ | *ʆaɾet / *yaɾet | *=apo | *mitɨ |
| ‘horn’ | *kop | not reconstructible | *ɾetɨ |
| ‘to fly’ | *pɔ, *ʆɔ | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘to hear’ | *ⁿbak | *=eⁿtup | *əta |
| ‘skin,bark’ | *kɤ | *pe | *pi |
| ‘long’ | *ɾɯy | *peɾeC | *mɨa |
| ‘meat’ | *ɲĩt | *ẽt | *punu |
| ‘road’ | *pɾɯt | *pe / *ape | *ətema |
| ‘to know’ | *ⁿbak | not reconstructible | *pu |
| ‘egg’ | *ⁿgɾɛ | *=upiʔa | *pumo |
| ‘seed’ | *ʆɯm | not reconstructible | *epɨ |
| ‘knee’ | *ʆVkɾã / *yVkɾã | *=pɨ̃ʔã | *=ətyə=kumu |
| ‘head’ | *kɾãỹ | *ʔa | *pu |
| ‘to sleep’ | *ʆɔ̃tᵊ / *ɲɔ̃tᵊ | *kʸet | *wənɨkɨ |
| ‘to burn’ | *pokᵊ | *pɨkʼ | *iatu |
| ‘to bite’ | *pɾop ~ *pɾʌp | *čukʼu | *əte |
| ‘fat’ | *tɔbⁿ | *kʸap | *katɨ |
| ‘man’ | *ⁿbɯn | *aɨče | *wəkɨɾɨ |
| ‘all’ | *=pV | not reconstructible, cf. PTG *=pap ‘completive’ | not reconstructible |
| ‘snake’ | *kaŋã | *ⁿboy | *əkəyu |
| ‘to see’ | *ⁿbVp | *cup | *əne |
| ‘heavy’ | *kuʆɯ | *pocɨy | *əwoti- |
| ‘to go’ | *tɛ, *mɔ̃ŋ | *co | *tə |
| ‘cold’ | *yiyi | *cik ~ *čik | *komiti |
| ‘cloud’ | *ⁿgVkᵊ, *ⁿbVV | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘far’ | *ɾɯy | not reconstructible | *mɨa, *paki |
| ‘good’ | *ⁿbɛȶᵊ | not reconstructible | *kuɾe |
| ‘mountain’ | *kɾãỹ | *cuʔa ~ *čuʔa | *ɨpɨ |
| ‘wind’ | *kokᵊ | *ɨpʷɨtu | *apitetune |
| ‘belly’ | *tikᵊ | *=ɨʔe ~ *=eʔo | *waku |
Nikulin (2019)
Jê-Tupí-Cariban basic vocabulary listed by Nikulin :- ‘to go’: p-Tupian *to, p-Bororo *tu, p-Cariban *tə
- ‘arm’: p-Mundurukú *paʔ, p-Macro-Jê *paC, Chiquitano pa-, p-Kariri *bo, p-Cariban *apə-rɨ
- ‘foot’: p-Tupian *py, p-Macro-Jê *pVrV, p-Bororo *bure, Kariri *bɨ, Chiquitano pope-, p-Cariban *pupu-ru
- ‘seed’: p-Tuparí-Karitiana *j-upa, p-Cariban *əpɨ
- ‘stone’: p-Macro-Jê *kra, p-Kariri *kro
- ‘tree’: p-Bororo *i, p-Kariri *dzi
- ‘to sleep’: p-Jabutí *nũtã, Chiquitano a-nu, p-Bororo *unutu / *-nutu, p-Kariri *-unu, p-Macro-Jê *ũtᵊ
Nikulin (2023)
Nikulin identifies the following cognates in Macro-Jê and Tupian as further evidence for a Macro-Jê–Tupian family.| Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupian |
| 3rd person non-coreferential prefix | *i- / *c- | *i- / *c- |
| ‘meat, flesh’ | *ĩt / *-ñĩt | *ẽT / *-jẽT |
| ‘to stand’ | *ja | *-ja or *-ʔãP |
| ‘name’ | *-jet | *-jeT |
| ‘father’ | *-jo₂m | *-joP |
| ‘pus’ | *-jo₂w° | *-joP ‘fish roe, pus’ |
| ‘tooth’ | *-juñ° | *-jãC |
| ‘to ingest’ | *-ko₂ | *-ꝁo |
| ‘tree, tree-like object ’ | *ky₁m° | *ꝁɯP |
| ‘liver’ | *-mbâ | *-pɨʔa / *mbɨʔa |
| ‘smoke’ | *-ñĩjə̂k | *-jĩːK |
| ‘feces’ | *-ñV˜ t° | *-jV˜ T |
| ‘earth’ | *ŋgyN° | *ꝁɯC |
| ‘arm’ | *-pa ‘arm, branch’ | *-pə / *mbə ‘hand, vine-like’, *-pə-ʔa / *mbə-ʔa ‘arm’ |
| ‘foot’ | *-pâr° | *-pɨ / *mbɨ |
| ‘to burn, to set on fire’ | *py₁k° ~ *py₁ŋ° | *-pɯK |
| 3rd person coreferential prefix | *ta- | *tə- |
| ‘to give’ | *-ũp | *-õP |
| ‘to go up, to rise’ | *-we | *-weP |
| Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Tupian |
| ‘hole’ | *-kuñ° | Proto-Mundurukuan *-kã̰j |
| ‘ripe’ | *-ndêp° | Tuparí -tep |
| ‘to kill’ | *-wĩ | Karo -wĩ |
| Gloss | Proto-Tupian | Macro-Jê |
| ‘bitter’ | *-ðəP | Proto-Cerrado *-ndap ‘sour, bitter’ |
| ‘to do, to say, to be like this’ | *-ꝁe | Proto-Southern Jê *kê / *ke |
| ‘white’ | *-ǩɨT | Proto-Cerrado *-kaː |
| ‘husband’ | *-mẽT | Proto-Macro-Jê *-mbi₂n |
| ‘I’ | *o- | Proto-Cerrado *wa |
| ‘to wake up’ | *-paK | Proto-Jabutian *-pa |
| ‘heavy’ | *-pətɨC | Maxakalí -ptux |
| ‘to go’, ‘to come’ | *-tẽP ‘to exit’, *-ʔatẽP ‘to arrive’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *tẽ ‘to go, to come’ |
| ‘to arrive’ | *-wɯC ‘to go out, to arrive’ | Proto-Cerrado *wôc, nonfinite *-wôc |
| Gloss | Macro-Jê | Tupian |
| ‘bat’ | Proto-Goyaz *nĵêp | Proto-Tupian *jɯP |
| ‘to dig’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-kut | Proto-Mundurukuan *-ɟ e-kot |
| ‘to enter’ | Proto-Jê *ŋgê₂ | Proto-Tupian *-ke ~ *-ǩe |
| ‘to pierce’ | Proto-Cerrado *-pôk, *-japôk | Proto-Tupi–Guaranian *-puK |
| ‘son’ | Proto-Chiquitano *´-tsay | Proto-Tuparian *-jaʔɨP or Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-caʔɨT |
| ‘sour’ | Proto-Jê *-jôK ‘sour, salty’ | Karitiana -syk |
| ‘sweet’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-jə̂ñ | Tuparí -hoy |
Non-cognate lookalikes or loans are identified by Nikulin as:
- ‘flat’: Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-peːP and Ofayé -ɸiʔ
- ‘to kill’: Ofayé -kə˜jʔ, Proto-Chiquitano *kõˀõj- ‘to kill, to die’, and Awetí -kỹj
- ‘liquid’: Proto-Tupian *ʔɯ / *-j-ɯ and Proto-Jabutian *-y
- ‘louse’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ŋgy₁n° and Proto-Core Mondé *giT
- ‘neck’: Proto-Tupian *-woT and Proto-Cerrado *-mbut
- ‘powder, paste’: Proto-Tupian *-jõʔõP and Proto-Jabutian *-nũ
- ‘thorn’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ñĩn° ~ *-ñĩñ° and Tuparí -ĩ
Macro-Chaco hypothesis
Nikulin suggests a Macro-Chaco hypothesis linking Jê-Tupí-Cariban with Mataco-Guaicuruan :- Macro-Chaco
- *Macro-Guaicurú
- **Matacoan
- **Guaicurú
- ** Zamuco
- *Jê-Tupí-Cariban
- **Macro-Tupian
- ***Tupian
- ***Macro-Jê + Chiquitano
- **Macro-Cariban
- ***Cariban
- ***Karirí
- ***Boróro
- ‘tooth’: p-Tupian *j-ãc, p-Tupian *j-uñ, p-Bororo *o, Chiquitano oʔo-, p-Cariban *jə, p-Kariri *dza, p-Guaicurú *-owe
- ‘liquid’: p-Tupian *j-ɯ, Chiquitano uʔu- ‘honey’, p-Matacoan *-ʔi
- ‘name’: p-Tupian *j-et, p-Tupian *-jet, p-Bororo *idʒe, Kariri *dze, p-Matacoan *-ej, p-Zamocoan *i, Chiquitano ɨri-
- ‘blood’: p-Tupian *əɯ, p-Tupian *j-O, p-Matacoan *’woj-, p-Guaicurú *-awot, Ayoreo ijo
- ‘seed’: pre-pMundurukú *j-a, p-Tupian *j-əm, p-Bororo *a, Chiquitano ijo-, p-Chiquitano *a, p-Matacoan *-oʔ, p-Guaicurú -a ‘fruit’
| GLOSS | Macro- Tupí | Macro- Jê | Proto- Carib | Mataco- Guaicurú |
| 1st singular | wi-, o-, ɨ- *a-, *sʲe- | *ʔi-, yo- | *ɨwɨ *ʧi- | *y- |
| 2nd singular | *e- *né- | *ʔa-, gʷa- | *m- *a- | *a- |
| 3rd singular | *o- *i-, *ts- | *i-, ɛ- | *kiʧɨ- *k- | *i- |
| 1st plural | *ku- | *qo- | ||
| 2nd plural | *pe- | *ka- | *qa- | |
| 3rd plural |
In this table the forms marked with refer to ergative/agentive case, and the forms marked with are referred to absolutive/patient/experiencer case.