Laterite

Laterite is a soil type rich in iron and aluminum that often forms in hot, wet areas; most such soil is found in the tropics. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration due to high iron oxide content.
Laterite soils develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of the underlying parent rock, usually under conditions of high temperatures and heavy rainfall alternating with dry periods, in a process called laterization. Such prolonged chemical weathering produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. Aside from this variety, laterite has commonly been considered a rock type as well as a soil type. These facts, and further ways of conceiving the nature of laterite, have led to calls for the term to be abandoned altogether. At least a few researchers specializing in regolith development, including T. R. Paton and M. A. J. Williams, have suggested that hopeless confusion has evolved around the name. Material that looks much like Indian laterite occurs abundantly worldwide.
Historically, laterite was cut into brick-like shapes and used in monument-building. After 1000 AD, construction at Angkor Wat and other southeast Asian sites changed to rectangular temple enclosures made of laterite, brick, and stone. Since the mid-1970s, some trial sections of bituminous-surfaced, low-volume roads have used laterite in place of stone as a base course. Thick laterite layers are porous and slightly permeable, so the layers can function as aquifers in rural areas. Locally available laterites have also been used to treat sewage, for example in an acid solution followed by precipitation to remove phosphorus and heavy metals.
Laterites are a source of aluminum ore; the ore exists largely in clay minerals and the hydroxide minerals gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore, and so resembles the composition of bauxite, the world's main source of aluminum ore. In Northern Ireland laterites once provided a major source of iron and aluminum ores. Laterite ores also were the early major source of nickel.

Definition and physical description

first described and named a laterite formation in southern India in 1807. He named it laterite from the Latin word later, which means a brick; this highly compacted and cemented soil can easily be cut into brick-shaped blocks for building. The word laterite has been used for variably cemented, sesquioxide-rich soil horizons. A sesquioxide is an oxide with three atoms of oxygen and two metal atoms. It has also been used for any reddish soil at or near the Earth's surface.
Laterite covers are thick in the stable areas of the Western Ethiopian Shield, on cratons of the South American Plate, and on the Australian Shield. In Madhya Pradesh, India, the laterite which caps the plateau is thick. Laterites can be either soft and easily broken into smaller pieces, or firm and physically resistant. Basement rocks are buried under the thick weathered layer and rarely exposed. Lateritic soils form the uppermost part of the laterite cover.
In some places laterites contain pisolites and ferricrete, and they may be found in elevated positions as result of relief inversion.
Cliff Ollier has criticized the usefulness of the concept given that it is used to mean different things to different authors. Reportedly some have used it for ferricrete, others for tropical red earth soil, and yet others for soil profiles made, from top to bottom, of a crust, a mottled zone and a pallid zone. He cautions strongly against the concept of "lateritic deep weathering" since "it begs so many questions".

Formation

Tropical weathering is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. The initial products of weathering are essentially kaolinized rocks called saprolites. A period of active laterization extended from about the mid-Tertiary to the mid-Quaternary periods. Statistical analyses show that the transition in the mean and variance levels of ¹⁸O during the middle of the Pleistocene was abrupt. It seems this abrupt change was global and mainly represents an increase in ice mass; at about the same time an abrupt decrease in sea surface temperatures occurred; these two changes indicate a sudden global cooling. The rate of laterization would have decreased with the abrupt cooling of the earth. Weathering in tropical climates continues to this day, at a reduced rate.
Laterites are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary rocks ; metamorphic rocks ; igneous rocks ; and mineralized proto-ores; which leaves the more insoluble ions, predominantly iron and aluminum. The mechanism of leaching involves acid dissolving the host mineral lattice, followed by hydrolysis and precipitation of insoluble oxides and sulfates of iron, aluminum and silica under the high temperature conditions of a humid sub-tropical monsoon climate.
An essential feature for the formation of laterite is the repetition of wet and dry seasons. Rocks are leached by percolating rain water during the wet season; the resulting solution containing the leached ions is brought to the surface by capillary action during the dry season. These ions form soluble salt compounds which dry on the surface; these salts are washed away during the next wet season. Laterite formation is favored in low topographical reliefs of gentle crests and plateaus which prevents erosion of the surface cover. The reaction zone where rocks are in contact with water—from the lowest to highest water table levels—is progressively depleted of the easily leached ions of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. A solution of these ions can have the correct pH to preferentially dissolve silicon oxide rather than the aluminum oxides and iron oxides. Silcrete has been suggested to form in zones in relatively dry "precipitating zones" of laterites. To the contrary, in the wetter parts of laterites subject to leaching ferricretes have been suggested to form.
The mineralogical and chemical compositions of laterites are dependent on their parent rocks. Laterites consist mainly of quartz, zircon, and oxides of titanium, iron, tin, aluminum and manganese, which remain during the course of weathering. Quartz is the most abundant relic mineral from the parent rock.
Laterites vary significantly according to their location, climate and depth. The main host minerals for nickel and cobalt can be either iron oxides, clay minerals or manganese oxides. Iron oxides are derived from mafic igneous rocks and other iron-rich rocks; bauxites are derived from granitic igneous rock and other iron-poor rocks. Nickel laterites occur in zones of the earth which experienced prolonged tropical weathering of ultramafic rocks containing the ferro-magnesian minerals olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole.

Locations

Yves Tardy, from the French Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, calculated that laterites cover about one-third of the Earth's continental land area. Lateritic soils are the subsoils of the equatorial forests, of the savannas of the humid tropical regions, and of the Sahelian steppes. They cover most of the land area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn; areas not covered within these latitudes include the extreme western portion of South America, the southwestern portion of Africa, the desert regions of north-central Africa, the Arabian peninsula and the interior of Australia.
Some of the oldest and most highly deformed ultramafic rocks which underwent laterization are found as petrified fossil soils in the complex Precambrian shields in Brazil and Australia. Smaller highly deformed Alpine-type intrusives have formed laterite profiles in Guatemala, Colombia, Central Europe, India and Burma. Large thrust sheets of Mesozoic island arcs and continental collision zones underwent laterization in New Caledonia, Cuba, Indonesian and the Philippines. Laterites reflect past weathering conditions; laterites which are found in present-day non-tropical areas are products of former geological epochs, when that area was near the equator. Present-day laterite occurring outside the humid tropics are considered to be indicators of climatic change, continental drift or a combination of both. In India, laterite soils occupy an area of 240,000 square kilometres.

Uses

Agriculture

Laterite soils have a high clay content, which means they have higher cation exchange capacity, low permeability, high plasticity and high water-holding capacity than sandy soils. It is because the particles are so small, the water is trapped between them. After the rain, the water moves into the soil slowly. Due to intensive leaching, laterite soils lack in fertility in comparison to other soils, however they respond readily to manuring and irrigation. Palms are less likely to suffer from drought because the rainwater is held in the soil. However, if the structure of lateritic soils becomes degraded, a hard crust can form on the surface, which hinders water infiltration, the emergence of seedlings, and leads to increased runoff. It is possible to rehabilitate such soils, using a system called the 'bio-reclamation of degraded lands'. This involves using indigenous water-harvesting methods, applying animal and plant residues, and planting high-value fruit trees and indigenous vegetable crops that are tolerant of drought conditions. These soils are most suitable for plantation crops. They are good for oil palm, tea, coffee and cashew cultivation. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics has employed this system to rehabilitate degraded laterite soils in Niger and increase smallholder farmers' incomes. In some places, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.

Building blocks

When moist, laterites can easily be cut with a spade into regular-sized blocks. Laterite is mined while it is below the water table, so it is wet and soft. Upon exposure to air it gradually hardens as the moisture between the flat clay particles evaporates and the larger iron salts lock into a rigid lattice structure and become resistant to atmospheric conditions. The art of quarrying laterite material into masonry is suspected to have been introduced from the Indian subcontinent. They harden like iron when they are exposed to air.
After 1000 AD Angkorian construction changed from circular or irregular earthen walls to rectangular temple enclosures of laterite, brick and stone structures. Geographic surveys show areas which have laterite stone alignments which may be foundations of temple sites that have not survived. The Khmer people constructed the Angkor monuments—which are widely distributed in Cambodia and Thailand—between the 9th and 13th centuries. The stone materials used were sandstone and laterite; brick had been used in monuments constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries. Two types of laterite can be identified; both types consist of the minerals kaolinite, quartz, hematite and goethite. Differences in the amounts of minor elements arsenic, antimony, vanadium and strontium were measured between the two laterites.
Angkor Wat—located in present-day Cambodia—is the largest religious structure built by Suryavarman II, who ruled the Khmer Empire from 1112 to 1152. It is a World Heritage site. The sandstone used for the building of Angkor Wat is Mesozoic sandstone quarried in the Phnom Kulen Mountains, about away from the temple. The foundations and internal parts of the temple contain laterite blocks behind the sandstone surface. The masonry was laid without joint mortar.
It is used as a local building material in places such as Burkina Faso, where it is valued for being strong and for reducing heating and cooling costs.