Ketapang Malay

Ketapang Malay, also known as Kayong Malay, or simply Kayong or Kayung, is a Malayic language in the Malayic Dayak lects that is primarily spoken by the Malay people living in Ketapang and North Kayong Regency as well as the surrounding regions in the southern part of West Kalimantan, Indonesia, specifically along the Pawan River. The distinctiveness of Ketapang Malay compared to other Malay varieties in West Kalimantan such as Pontianak Malay and Sambas Malay lies in its intonation, dialectal features, and certain regional vocabulary that cannot be found in other areas. This language is divided into several dialects, namely the Ketapang dialect, Teluk Melano dialect, Teluk Batang dialect, Sukadana dialect, and Kendawangan dialect, which exhibit differences in pronunciation systems, word forms, vocabulary, and linguistic nuances. However, these dialects remain mutually intelligible, allowing the Ketapang Malay community to communicate seamlessly with one another.
In Ketapang and the surrounding regions, Ketapang Malay is primarily used for daily communication in families, communities, workplaces, and markets, whether in formal or informal settings. Indonesian is used as the language of instruction in official settings such as the government and schools, but the usage of Ketapang Malay persists during informal settings such as in recesses and in social interactions. It holds a high status as a regional identity symbol and fosters pride among its speakers, who often continue using it even when outside their region. It is not only used by the Malay community but also by other ethnic groups residing in Ketapang and the surrounding regions, such as the Chinese, Madurese, and Javanese communities as a daily communication language.

Classification

Ketapang Malay is a Malayic language. Speakers of Malayic languages are spread from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of the Philippines. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.
Ketapang Malay, also known as Kayong, is classified as a Malayic Dayak lect according to Glottolog.
Ketapang Malay is one of five major Malay variants spoken in West Kalimantan, the other being Pontianak Malay, Sambas Malay, Landak Malay and Kapuas Hulu Malay. There are differences between these languages. Ketapang Malay stands out from other Malay varieties in West Kalimantan, such as Pontianak Malay and Sambas Malay, due to its unique intonation patterns, distinct dialectal characteristics, and the presence of specific regional vocabulary that is absent in other regions. Ketapang Malay is also related to the Tola language, a language spoken by the Dayak tribes in Ketapang. The two languages share similarities in their lexicons but differ significantly in phonology and morphology.

Geographical distribution and usage

Ketapang Malay is mainly spoken in Malay-dominated areas in Ketapang and North Kayang Regency, typically in coastal areas. In the interior areas of Ketapang, Ketapang Malay serves as a contact language and lingua franca for interethnic communication. Ketapang Malay is primarily spoken in the Matan Hilir Utara and Matan Hilir Selatan districts. In addition to Ketapang Malay, the region is also home to speakers of Dayak languages, Madurese, and other Malay varieties, such as Pontianak Malay and Sambas Malay. Dayak languages are spoken by Dayak communities whose villages border these districts, while Madurese is spoken by the Madurese population residing in the area. Other Malay varieties are used by newcomers who have recently settled in the region.
In Ketapang, Ketapang Malay is regarded as an informal language, primarily used for family communication and traditional rituals. The medium of instruction in government offices and schools in Ketapang is Indonesian, as it is across Indonesia. However, during breaks and outside school hours, Ketapang Malay remains the language of choice. Similarly, in the workplace, Ketapang Malay is still widely spoken. In the market, Ketapang Malay is undoubtedly the dominant language spoken between traders from different ethnic groups. Even speakers of other languages who have stayed in Ketapang for a long time, whether consciously or not, often adopt Ketapang Malay over time. Ketapang Malay holds significant cultural value within its community, regarded as a symbol of regional identity that fosters pride among its speakers. Even when away from their hometown, speakers of Ketapang Malay typically continue to use the dialect when meeting other speakers of the language.
Ketapang Malay plays a vital role in shaping Ketapang Malay culture, particularly in traditional ceremonies and the transmission of folklore. However, over time, the growing influence of other languages, especially Indonesian as the national language, has led to significant linguistic changes. Many lexicons in Ketapang Malay have evolved, shifted, or been gradually replaced by their Indonesian equivalents, resulting in the loss of traditional Ketapang terms and vocabulary. Currently, many speakers of Ketapang Malay, especially the younger generations, are weak in maintaining their proficiency in Ketapang Malay, whether they are monolingual or bilingual. They prefer to use Indonesian and consider traditional Ketapang Malay lexicons as archaic. In the past, Ketapang Malay served as both a trade language within Ketapang and a means of communication with outsiders. However, Indonesian has now become the dominant language in key aspects of Ketapang society.

Dialects

Ketapang Malay is divided into five major dialects: the Ketapang, Teluk Melano, Teluk Batang, Sukadana, and Kendawangan dialects. These dialects differ in pronunciation, word forms, vocabulary, and linguistic nuances. For example, the Ketapang and Sukadana dialects show a noticeable difference in phonetics. For instance, the letter "e" at the end of a word, when pronounced phonetically, changes to "ǝ," but when it appears at the beginning of a word, it changes to "i." An example can be seen in the word eje 'to pronounce' in the Ketapang dialect, which, when pronounced phonetically, is ; in the Sukadana dialect, it becomes or when pronounced phonetically. The same pattern applies to other words, such as ember 'bucket' in the Ketapang dialect, which changes to imber in the Sukadana dialect by omitting the "r" sound and lengthening the "e" sound. Within these five major dialects, subdialects also exist, varying from one village to another in aspects such as tone and vocabulary. Despite these variations, these dialects generally remain mutually intelligible to one another, enabling the Ketapang Malay community to communicate effortlessly with one another.

Phonology

Ketapang Malay, like many other regional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Nevertheless, many of the phonological system designed for Sambas Malay is loosely based on standard Indonesian orthography, especially the system created by the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology.

Vowels

Like Indonesian and Standard Malay, Ketapang Malay has six vowels. These vowels are /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /u/, and /o/.

	Front	Central	Back
Close
Mid
Open

Notes:

In writing, and are both represented as.
Consonants

Ketapang Malay has a total of 19 consonants.
Notes:

In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
* is
* is
* is
* is
* is
* is
Diphthongs

Ketapang Malay has three types of diphthongs: /ai/, /au/, and /oi/, which are pronounced as , , and . A diphthong consists of two vowels that form a single vowel sound that cannot be separated. Below are some examples of diphthongs in Ketapang Malay:

/ai/: /pantai/ 'beach', /suɲai/ 'river'
/au/: /pulau/ 'island', /ənau/ 'sugar palm'
/oi/: /səpoi/ 'gentle breeze'
Grammar

Along with Indonesian, standard Malay, and other Malayic languages, the word order in Ketapang Malay is typically subject-verb-object. While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of Ketapang Malay shares many similarities with Indonesian and Standard Malay.

Affixes

In Ketapang Malay, there are several types of affixation: prefixation, suffixation, and circumfixation. The table below presents a list of some examples of affixes used in Ketapang Malay, along with their allomorphs, meanings, and examples:

Type of affixes	Affixes	Allomorphs	Functions and meanings	Example of basic word	Example of derived word
Prefixes	N-	me-, m-, n-, ny-, ng-, nge-	Used to form both transitive and intransitive verbs. It conveys the meanings of carrying out an action or movement, moving toward something, becoming like something, and using or working with something.	makan 'eat '	memakan 'eat '
Prefixes	be-	none	Used to form verbs and is a transformation of the word mempunyai 'to have'. It conveys the meanings of having or possessing, using, performing an action, obtaining or producing something, indicating a collection, expressing intensive action, and denoting reciprocal actions.	kawan 'friends'	bekawan 'to have friends'
Prefixes	per-	pe-, pel-	Used to form nouns and verbs. It denotes a doer of an action, a recipient of an action, and the act of making something more of a certain quality.	lebar 'wide'	perlebar 'to widen'
Prefixes	te-	none	Used to form verbs and adjectives. It means entering a certain state, indicating an ongoing action, expressing a completed action, denoting the superlative, and conveying a feeling toward something.	dudok 'sit '	tedudok 'to be sitten'
Prefixes	peN-	pen-, peng-, peny-, pem-	Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of indicating the doer of an action, denoting a tool, and referring to a person who possesses the qualities described by an adjective.	rawat 'to care for'	perawat 'carer' or 'nurse'
Prefixes	se-	none	Used to form numerals and adjectives. It conveys the meaning of indicating 'one', 'whole', or expressing sameness.	burok 'bad'	seburok 'as bad as'
Prefixes	di-	none	Used to form verbs. It conveys the meaning of an activity that is unfinished or ongoing, or indicating a task that has been completed.	bawak 'bring '	dibawak 'to be brought'
Suffixes	-an	none	Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of indicating a tool or expressing a result.	pilih 'choose '	pilihan 'choice'
Suffixes	-ek	none	Used to form verbs. It conveys the meaning of completing or attaching to the basic word and performing the activity indicated by the basic word.	garam 'salt'	garamek 'to add salt'
Suffixes	-kan	none	Used to form verbs. It conveys the meaning of making something as indicated by the basic word or placing it in a certain position or state.	penjara 'prison'	penjarakan 'imprison'
Circumfixes	be-...-an	none	Used to form verbs. It conveys the meaning of performing an activity or experiencing treatment with a large number of participants and being interconnected with one another.	gugor 'to fall'	begugoran 'to fall one another'
Circumfixes	ke-...-an	none	Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of the basic word in a less pleasant sense or expressing something negative.	sedeh 'sad'	kesedehan 'sadness'
Circumfixes	peN-...-an	pen-, peng-, peny-, pem-	Used to form nouns. It conveys the meaning of the word indicating a process or expressing a result.	ngaku 'confess '	pengakuan 'confession'
Circumfixes	per-...-an	pe-, pel-	Used to form nouns. It indicates a process or state related to the basic word, or it conveys the meaning of a location.	tumboh 'grow '	pertumbohan 'growth'