Enver Pasha


İsmâil Enver 'Pasha' was an Ottoman Turkish military officer, revolutionary, and convicted war criminal who was a part of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" in the Ottoman Empire.
While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the Committee of Union and Progress, an organization affiliated with the Young Turks movement that was agitating against Sultan Abdul Hamid II's despotic rule. He was a key leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which reestablished the Constitution and parliamentary democracy in the Ottoman Empire. Along with Ahmed Niyazi, Enver was hailed as "hero of the revolution". However, a series of crises in the Empire, including the 31 March Incident, the Balkan Wars, and the power struggle with the Freedom and Accord Party, left Enver and the Unionists disillusioned with liberal Ottomanism. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état brought the CUP directly to power, Enver became War Minister, while Talaat assumed control over the civilian government.
As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver was one of the most powerful figures in the Ottoman government. He initiated the formation of an alliance with Germany, and was instrumental in the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I. He then led a disastrous attack on Russian forces in the Battle of Sarikamish, after which he blamed Armenians for his defeat. Along with Talaat, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the late Ottoman genocides and thus is held responsible for the death of between 800,000 and 1,500,000 Armenians, 750,000 Assyrians and 500,000 Greeks. Following defeat in World War I, Enver, along with other leading Unionists, escaped the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Military Tribunal convicted him and other Unionists and sentenced them to death in absentia for bringing the Empire into World War I and organizing massacres against Greeks and Armenians. Enver ended up in Central Asia, where he was killed leading the Basmachi Revolt against the Bolsheviks. In 1996, his remains were reburied in Turkey. Enver was subsequently rehabilitated by Turkish president Süleyman Demirel, who praised his contributions to Turkish nationalism.
As Enver rose through the ranks of the military, he was known by increasingly esteemed titles, including Enver Efendi, Enver Bey, and finally Enver Pasha. "Pasha" was the honorary title granted to Ottoman military officers upon promotion to the rank of Mirliva.

Early life and career

İsmail Enver was born in Constantinople on 23 November 1881. Enver's father, Ahmed, was either a Gagauz bridge-keeper in Monastir, or an Albanian small town public prosecutor in the Balkans. His mother Ayşe Dilara was a Tatar. According to Şuhnaz Yilmaz, he was of Gagauz descent. His uncle was Halil Pasha. Enver had two younger brothers, Nuri and Mehmed Kâmil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He was the brother-in-law of Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım. At age six, Enver moved with his father to Monastir, where he attended primary school. He studied at several military institutions. In 1902, he graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy making him a mektebli. In the context of the late Hamidian era mekteblis were educated officers hailing from the new military colleges, as opposed to the older alaylı officers which did not receive formal educations, resulting in some in the latter group being illiterate. His classmate in the military academy was the first president of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal, and the two quickly developed a rivalry with one another.
Between 1903 and 1908, Enver was stationed in various locations in Ottoman Macedonia, where he helped suppress the Macedonian Struggle. He fought no less than 54 engagements, mostly against Bulgarian bands, developing a reputation as an expert counter-insurgent. During his service, he became convinced of the need for reforms in the Ottoman military.
By 1905 Enver had achieved success in Macedonia and was recognized for fighting with distinction. He became a lieutenant colonel was awarded the fourth and third class Mecidiye medal, fourth class Osmaniye medal, and a gold medal of merit for his outstanding achievements in military operations against Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian insurgents. This did not mean he was immune from the suspicions of the intelligence agencies. He was interrogated by the secret police for alleged seditious activity against the government, but he was not convicted. These events radicalized Enver's perceptions of nationalism, and a sympathy for the Young Turks as he became skeptical of the Hamidian regime.

Joining the CUP

Enver, through the assistance of his uncle, Halil Kut, became the twelfth member of the nascent Ottoman Freedom Society. The OFS later merged with the Paris-based Committee of Union and Progress led by Ahmed Rıza. The CUP gained access to the Third Army through Enver. Upon his return to Monastir in 1906, Enver formed a CUP cell within the town and worked closely with Ottoman officer Kâzım Karabekir. Enver became the main figure in the CUP Monastir branch, and he initiated Ottoman officers like Ahmet Niyazi bey and Eyüp Sabri into the CUP organisation.
In the early twentieth century some prominent Young Turk members such as Enver developed a strong interest in the ideas of Gustave Le Bon. For example, Enver saw deputies as mediocre and in reference to Le Bon he thought that as a collective mind they had the potential to become dangerous and be the same as a despotic leader. As the CUP shifted away from the ideas of members who belonged to the old core of the organisation to those of the newer membership, this change assisted individuals like Enver in gaining a larger profile in the Young Turk movement.
In Ohri an armed band called the Special Muslim Organisation composed mostly of notables was created in 1907 to protect local Muslims and fight Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization bands. Enver along with Sabri recruited the SMO and turned it into the Ohri branch of the CUP with its band becoming the local CUP band. CUP Internal headquarters proposed that Enver go form a CUP band in the countryside. Approving the decision by the committee to assassinate his brother-in-law Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım, Enver under instructions from CUP headquarters traveled from Selanik to Tikveş on 26 June 1908 to establish a band. CUP headquarters conferred upon Enver the title of "CUP Inspector General of Internal Organisation and Executive Forces".

Young Turk Revolution

On 3 July 1908, Niyazi, protesting the rule of Abdul Hamid II, fled with his band from Resne into the mountains where he initiated the Young Turk Revolution and issued a proclamation that called for the restoration of the constitution of 1876. Following his example, Enver in Tikveş, and other officers such as Sabri in Ohri, also went into the mountains and formed guerilla bands. It is unclear whether the CUP had a fixed date for the revolution; in comments made in an interview following the event Enver stated that they planned for action in August 1908, yet events had forced them to begin the revolution at an earlier time. For the revolt to get local support Enver and Niyazi played on fears of possible foreign intervention. Enver led a band composed of volunteers and deserters. For example, he allowed a deserter who had engaged in brigandage in areas west of the river Vardar to join his band at Tikveș. Throughout the revolution, guerilla bands of both Enver and Niyazi consisted of Muslim paramilitaries.
Enver sent an ultimatum to the Inspector General on 11 July 1908 and demanded that within 48 hours Abdul Hamid II issue a decree for CUP members that had been arrested and sent to Constantinople to be freed. He warned that if the ultimatum was not complied with by the Inspector General, he would refuse to accept any responsibility for future actions. In Tikveș a handwritten appeal was distributed to locals calling for them to either stay neutral or join with him. Enver possessed strong authority among fellow Muslims in the area where he resided and could communicate with them as he spoke both Albanian and Turkish. During the revolution, Enver stayed in the homes of notables, and as a sign of respect they would kiss his hands since he had earlier saved them from an attack by an IMRO band. He stated that the CUP had no support in the countryside apart from a few large landowners with CUP membership that lived in towns, yet they retained influence in their villages and were able to mobilise the population for the cause. Whole settlements were enrolled into the CUP through councils of village elders convened by Enver in Turkish villages of the Tikveş region. As the revolution spread by the third week and more officers deserted the army to join the cause, Enver and Niyazi got like minded officials and civilian notables to send multiple petitions to the Ottoman palace. Enver wrote in his memoirs that while he still was involved in band activity in the days toward the end of the revolution he composed more detailed rules of engagement for use by paramilitary units and bands.
On 23 July he proclaimed an age of liberty in front of the government mansion of Köprülü. In Salonica, he spoke from the balconies of the Grand Hôtel D'Angleterre to a crowd in the city center, where he declared that absolutism was finished, and Ottomanism would prevail. The square would be named Eleftherias Square, or the Square of Liberty thereafter. Facing a deteriorating situation in the Balkans, on 24 July Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the constitution of 1876.

Aftermath

In the aftermath of the revolution, Niyazi and Enver remained in the political background due to their youth and junior military ranks with both agreeing that photographs of them would not be distributed to the general public; however, this decision was rarely honoured. Instead, Niyazi and Enver as leaders of the revolution elevated their positions to near legendary status, with their images placed on postcards and distributed throughout the Ottoman state. Toward the latter part of 1908, photographs of Niyazi and Enver had reached Constantinople and school children of the time played with masks on their faces that depicted the revolutionaries. In other images produced at the same time, the sultan is presented in the centre, flanked by Niyazi and Enver to either side. As the actions of both men carried the appearance of initiating the revolution, Niyazi, an Albanian, and Enver, a Turk, later received popular acclaim as "heroes of freedom" and symbolised Albanian-Turkish cooperation.
As a tribute to his role in the Young Turk Revolution that began the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, Niyazi is mentioned along with Enver in the March of the Deputies, the anthem of the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Ottoman parliament. It was performed in 1909 upon the opening of the new parliament. The fourth line of the anthem reads "Long live Niyazi, long live Enver". The Ottoman newspaper Volkan, a strong supporter of the constitution published adulatory pieces about Enver and Niyazi in 1909.
Following the revolution, Enver rose within the ranks of the Ottoman military and had an important role within army–committee relations. Soon after the revolution he was assigned to the Inspectorate of the Rumelian Provinces, but in March 1909 he was the military attaché at Berlin and formed personal ties with high ranking German state officials and the Kaiser. It was during this time that Enver came to admire the culture of Germany and power of the German military. He invited German officers to reform the Ottoman Army. In 1909 a reactionary conspiracy to organise a countercoup culminated in the 31 March Incident; the countercoup was put down. Enver for a short time in April 1909 returned to Constantinople to join the Action Army. As such he took an active role in the suppression of the countercoup, which resulted in the overthrow of Abdul Hamid II, who was replaced by his brother Mehmed V, while the power of the CUP was consolidated. Throughout the Young Turk era, Enver was a member of the CUP central committee from 1908 to 1918.
In March 1911, he was recalled from Berlin and once again sent to Macedonia by War Minister Mahmud Şevket Pasha, whom he first met on 19 March 1911, to inspect the measures taken against insurgents in Macedonia. Making the rounds in Salonica, Üsküp, Monastir, Köprülü and Tikveş, he also met with the leading figures of the CUP. He returned to Istanbul on 11 May 1911. On 27 July he left the capital to suppress the Malissori rebellion as the chief of staff of the Second Corps, traveling to Shkodër via Trieste, again spending time to resolve disputes between the Unionists and Albanian nationalists. Later, he went to Berlin, but returned home when the Italians attacked Tripoli.