International Society for Krishna Consciousness
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, commonly known as the Hare Krishna Movement, is a Hindu religious organization. It follows the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, which emphasizes devotion to Krishna as the supreme deity. The ISKCON was founded on 13 July 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. The organization's spiritual and administrative headquarters is located in Mayapur, West Bengal, India, and it claims a global membership of around one million people.
ISKCON teaches a form of panentheistic Hinduism rooted in the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and other scriptures, interpreted through the commentaries of its founder. Although commonly regarded as monotheistic by the general public, ISKCON theology emphasizes that the Supreme Being, Krishna, manifests in multiple forms while remaining the singular, ultimate reality. The movement is described as the largest and most influential branch of the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, which originated in India in the early 16th century and expanded internationally during the late 20th century.
ISKCON promotes bhakti yoga—the path of devotional service to Krishna—as the central spiritual practice of its members, who are often referred to as "bhaktas." The movement also encourages lacto vegetarianism, regular chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra, and strict ethical and devotional disciplines as part of its teachings on spiritual progress.
History and beliefs
Background
was a minor deity in the historical Vedic religion, to which Vaiṣṇavism has only "a very indirect connection". In the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahābharāta, Kr̥ṣṇa is both God and an ally of the Pāṇḍavas. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa enumerates numerous avatāras of Viṣṇu and of them considers Kr̥ṣṇa to be Svayam Bhagavān; many concepts integral to the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava tradition such as līlā, acintyabhedābheda, overflowing emotion in bhakti, and reciting the names of Hari find their foundation in this text. The theme of emotional devotion to Kr̥ṣṇa continued in bhakti poetry such as the Sanskrit Gīta-Govinda of Jayadeva and the Bengali poems of Caṇḍīdāsa, both of which were influential to Gauḍiya Vaiṣṇavism.The Gauḍīya sampradāya claims to originate from the Madhva sampradaya through Lakṣmīpati Tīrtha and Mādhavendra Puri; scholars debate the historicity of this connection and most consider them to have been Vaishnava-oriented Shankarite aka Dashanami sannyasis. Caitanya Mahāprabhu, born in sixteenth century Bengal, is considered the founder of Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism, called such because it was spread in Gauḍa i.e. Bengal. During the period around Caitanya's life, Bengal was ruled by a Muslim government which nevertheless patronized Vaiṣṇavas and their cultural work. There exist several biographies of Caitanya which are capped by the Caitanya-Caritāmr̥ta of Kr̥ṣṇadāsa Kavirāja; each biography explores Caitanya's life and Gauḍīya conceptions of his divinity. Caitanya started life as a precocious paṇḍita but soon became a sannyāsī entranced with ecstatic devotion to Kr̥ṣṇa who developed a strong following centered around the recitation of Kr̥ṣṇa's names. Caitanya went on a pilgrimage of South India and is depicted as debating various religious groups and converting them to Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism; scholars also believe he was searching for Vaiṣṇava traditions that did not survive in the Muslim-dominated North India. In Caitanya's pilgrimage of Vraja, he visited sites associated with Kr̥ṣṇa's life and is depicted as exhibiting ecstasies indicative of his true nature as Kr̥ṣṇa. Of sites in Vraja, Rādhā Kuṇḍa was considered by Gauḍīya's to be the most esoteric. On the return journey, he tasked Rūpa Gosvāmī and Sanātana Gosvāmī to develop the theology of his saṁpradāya. The temple of Jagannātha in Caitanya's resident city of Puri is an important religious site for Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavas and other Hindus; the Jagannātha deity has very old traditions regarding its origin, relation to the Gajāpati rulers and devadāsīs, and the Ratha Yātrā. Caitanya did not give anyone initiation nor he did he appoint a successor, but served as a "rallying point" for his contemporaries and was considered a yuga-avatāra.
Sādhanā is the means or method used to increase devotion to God; in the Gauḍīya sampradāya sādhanas include worship of an arcā-vigraha, smaraṇa of Kr̥ṣṇa's līlās, saṅkīrtana, vaidhī bhakti, rāgānugā bhakti. The Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava tradition considers Brahman to be infinite and having all personal qualities; it is strongly opposed to the Advaita philosophy that Brahman is indescribable and impersonal with no qualities. The Gauḍīya philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda considers reality to be inconceivably different and non-different at the same time; the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan were powerful scholarly figures who were able to rationalize the philosophy and give it prestige. Hinduism has a long tradition of what has been termed "sonic theology", i.e. the spiritual and mundane effects of speaking certain syllables; the Gauḍīya tradition's sonic theology focuses on the loud chanting of Kr̥ṣṇa's names and the Hare Kr̥ṣṇa mantra to increase Kr̥ṣṇa devotion. Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism has aspects of mysticism, where devotees attempt to attain certain ecstatic emotional states which has been termed "divine madness" ; through līlā smaraṇa devotees assume a dual identity as a mañjarī in Kr̥ṣṇa līlā and as a Bengali brāhmaṇa boy in Gaura līlā. In Gauḍīya theology, rasa refers to the cultivated emotion a devotee has for Kr̥ṣṇa, the highest being madhura rasa or selfless erotic love for Kr̥ṣṇa. The līlā smaraṇa and mañjarī sādhana techniques are found to a greater extent among Gauḍīya ascetics; whereas householder devotees more often access Kr̥ṣṇa līlā physically through pilgrimage to Vraja. While not mentioned directly in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the goddess Rādhā is considered chief among the gopīs. Gauḍiya theology considers her to have the highest level of loving devotion for Kr̥ṣṇa and Rādhā-Kr̥ṣṇa is considered the ultimate esoteric reality and receives the highest worship by Gauḍiya Vaiṣṇavas. After Caitanya's death in 1534, the movement's philosophy and teachings were consolidated by his followers but eventually declined in popularity. In eastern India, Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā is a Vāma-Tantra tradition in which male and female devotees imitate the erotic relationship between Kr̥ṣṇa and Rādha; this tradition is met with abhorrence by the orthodox Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava tradition, which asserts that devotees can only serve and may not imitate the divine couple. The theologies of the Vrindavan goswamis were brought to Bengal in the late-sixteenth century and consolidated the teachings of Radha-Krishna worship in madhura rasa, pancha tattva, and raganuga bhakti/''siddha pranali.
The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition accepted the existing tradition of hereditary Brahmin kula gurus. The Hari-bhakti-vilasa and Bhakti Rasamrita Sindhu of the Vrindavan goswamis approved of householder gurus and dissallowed ascetics to take disciples. The Gaudiya tradition rejected the Brahmin-only Dashanami sannyasa tradition of Chaitanya and his predecessors; unlike the saffron robes of the Shankarites Gaudiya renunciates wore white and were called babajis. Despite concessions of Krishna bhakti to lower castes, Gaudiya Vaishnavism remained in Brahmanical control and preserved the social status quo.
In the 19th century, the leading castes in Bengal included the Kulīna Brāhmanas who served as priests and teachers and Kulīna Kāyasthas who served as writers and scribes. Below them were Non-Kulīna Brahmanas who were landowners and entrepreneurs and non-Kulīna Kāyasthas, who achieved great economic success under British rule and were subject to Westernization. The Westernized non-Kulīna Brāhmanas and Kāyasthas were attracted to Western philosophies but viewed Gaudiya Vaishnavism with distaste as idol-worshipping superstition. Bhaktivinoda Thakur, a Westernized Gaudiya Vaishnava Kayastha, developed a rigorous intellectual interest in Gaudiya religious literature and began a personal mission to publish its texts and promote its teachings. Bhaktivinoda oriented his philosophies to a Westernized Bengali Hindu audience, arguing that Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a sophisticated universal religion in contrast to the hereditary caste-based nature of orthodox Brahmanism. Bhaktivinoda was a vocal opponent of Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā, "rediscovered" the "lost" birthplace of Caitanya, and deemphasized the external exhibition of caste. He also attempted to spread Caitanyite teachings among the Western world by sending texts to foreign universities. Bhaktivinoda utilised contemporary 19th-century scholarly methods to critically analyse Gaudiya Vaishnavism. He developed innovative theological principles such as his categorisation of spiritual seekers based on their intellectual capacity and his division of religious knowledge into phenomenal knowledge and transcendental knowledge.
Bhaktivinoda's son was Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, who continued his father's mission and extended its views on social equality. Bhaktisiddhanta claimed to be the initiate of Gaura Kishor Das Babaji, but details of his initiation are mysterious. In contrast to the standard pancharatrika diksha most sources claim he received bhagavati diksha. Bhaktisiddhanta claimed he belonged to an invented Bhagavata parampara which focused on raganuga bhakti which he contrasted with the ritualistic Pancharatrika tradition which he claimed had infested Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Nevertheless, Bhaktisiddhanta initiated his own disciples in the standard Pancharatrika form and did not give clear instructions on how to continue the bhagavata tradition. In contrast to his father's deemphasis on caste, Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati allowed any devotee who exhibited the proper characteristics to consider themselves a brahmin and adorn the corresponding dress, challenging the existing system of hereditary Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava temple priests. Unlike his father, Bhaktisiddhanta was not employed in any official position which allowed him the time to create and manage the Gaudiya Math, the first formal organisation of Vaiṣṇava sādhus/sannyāsīs. The Gaudiya Math broke with Gaudiya tradition by adopting the saffron robes of the Shankarites and the tridanda'' of Puranic tradition. Prior to Bhaktivedanta, the Gaudiya Math had sent individuals to the West to convert foreigners to very little success. Prior to his death, Bhaktisiddhanta gave three disciples joint governorship of the Gaudiya Math: Ananta Vasudeva, Kunjabihari, and Paramananda. A council of Gaudiya Math leaders elected Ananta Vasudeva as acharya, a decision which was rejected by Kunjabihari and his followers. Many other disciples also split off to create their own independent organisations. Puri Das discarded secondary literature of post-Chaitanyite figures and began to focus on the works of the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan and eventually became a major critic of the Gaudiya Math. Highlighting differences between traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism and the Gaudiya Math, Puri Das encouraged Bhaktisiddhanta disciples to instead take initiation in traditional Gaudiya lineages. During this period Bhaktivedanta was a minor househoulder who unsuccessfully urged a return to the "hard" institution of Bhaktisiddhanta's time. By the mid-20th century the Gaudiya Math was no longer a "hard" institution but a loose collection of disciple lines and independent organisations.
Indian immigrants and Hindu thought among White Americans began filtering into the United States in the 19th century, and both elicited negative reactions from the American public. The public viewed Indians and Hinduism as backward and its public visibility as threatening to white Christian Americans. After the Asian Exclusion Act, there was a 30 year lull in reactions to Hinduism, which changed after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 and the foundation of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, at the time the most visible face of Hinduism in America. The Hare Krishna movement differed from these earlier expressions of Hindu philosophy in the West in that it was an explicitly theistic religious tradition that required absolute adherence to its rules and taboos. Earlier expressions of Hinduism in the West tended to belong to the monistic tradition of Advaita Vedanta and were propagated by "streamlined swamis" who greatly diluted Eastern thought and did not require people to give up their current lifestyles.