Hmong writing
Hmong writing refers to the various writing systems that have been used for transcribing various Hmongic languages, spoken by Hmong people in China, Vietnam, Laos, the United States, and Thailand, these being the top five countries. Over a dozen scripts have been reported for Hmong, none of which is considered standard for transcribing the languages in the eyes of the speakers.Historically referenced scripts
It is unknown whether a historic writing system existed for the Hmong. Several Hmong scripts have been noted in historical works, mostly in Chinese literature, as illustrated in the below sections. However, this evidence is disputed. For instance, according to Professor S. Robert Ramsey, there was no writing system among the Miao until the missionaries created them. Archaeologists are still searching for artifacts from periods of alleged Hmong literacy. These five scripts below are the most widely evidenced in primary literature sources:From Chinese legends, the Nanman are largely considered to be the ancestors of the Hmong, also known as one of the "Four Barbarians" against the Huaxia, the ancestors of the Han. The Nanman lived originally in central-east China, but after battle losses and the expulsion of Chi You, who is allegedly considered a Godlike figure by the Hmong, the Nanman fled to the south. Different stories exist as to how their script and already encoded information disappeared: that the books were lost in a flood, that the Hmong had to eat the books as food due to the Chinese invasion, that they were eaten by other animals in their escapade from the Chinese, or that they had no way to cross the river without disposing of the books. All the stories have in common a loss of the books, water, and an invading Chinese tribe. This script has not been found.Paj Ntaub (Flower Cloth)
In response to the Chinese invasion, the Hmong claim that they preserved their ancient writing system in the "flower cloth" of the women. This seems to be a common story in response to the deluge and loss of books in the aftermath of the loss of the Nanman to the Huaxia. A modern script on the Internet known as the "Ancient Hmong Written System" claims to be a decipherment of this script, but no connection has been asserted from a neutral, reliable source. These symbols show the models of nature and architecture of the land where the Hmong people used to live. All of the designs in the Pau Ntaub have symbolism and meanings such as hearts, houses, and animals.It is unknown whether this script differs from that of the Nanman, but it is known that as far as the Qing dynasty, the Hmong used a writing system to record information. It is unclear for how long they used this script, as Han settlers largely moved into the southern regions of China, only during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In attempts to coerce the Hmong, also known as the Miao, Hmong villages were burned and relics of Hmong culture were destroyed. Hmongs were also banned from transcribing their language, so it is not known whether any Hmong writing from the era remains or where it remains.The "Book from Heaven" seems to be engraved in a Miao script, as reported in March 2012 from Shaoyang, Hunan. The Hunan Cultural Relic Department is reportedly investigating the script and any connections it may have. This may represent either the Qing script or the Nanman script, if dated, but any connections and authenticity are unclear.Monumental Script
A group of monuments across Southern China written in Chinese-looking characters are reported to be those of an "Old Miao script". A particular monument in Leigongshan, Guizhou has been found with a residual monument inscribing "This year is also a good year." This is preserved in the Guizhou Provincial Museum. These characters are referred to in the Qing dynasty book, 洞溪纤志.Widely used scripts
The Pollard script was published in 1922 by Sam Pollard for writing A-Hmao, a Hmongic language in Sichuan, China. Published sources seem to indicate that the use of the script was widespread amongst Hmong in Sichuan; however, its use is waning, although it is held in esteem by Hmong of the Christian community and by elders. The current extent of its use is unknown.Pahawh Hmong
is one of the most successful indigenous scripts to have ever been created by illiterates. It was created by Shong Lue Yang, who was born in 1930 to a farmer. He was seen by the Hmong people as a "Chao Fa", or "Lord of the Sky", which makes him akin to the son of God in Hmong culture. He has a long history that began with the receipt of a divine mandate from the deity "Va", of whom he proclaimed he was the son. He apparently was visited in an isolated round house by two men from God, who taught him the script over the course of 60 days. When he came out and taught people the script, it gained a widespread following. However, two political problems emerged. First, both the French government and the Lao government began to view him with enmity as a result of his influence. Second, due to the military success of Pa Chai's followers, these governments began to associate him with a military agenda, even though none is known to have existed. Thus, he was assassinated in 1971. His script survived through his followers, however, and he even created a script called Pahawh Khmu for the Khmu language.Ntawv Thoob Teb (RPA)
This script, known as the Romanized Popular Alphabet, was developed from 1951 to 1953 by Christian missionaries Yves Bertrais, G. Lindwood Barney, and William A. Smalley. Due to the widespread existence of the Roman script, in the United States, this script remains the most widely adopted among Hmong diaspora. It is also widely used on the Internet. These writing systems consists of symbolizing pronunciations more than meaningful words, portraying how the writing system looks more to produce accurate tones and pronunciations. Inaccurate tones and pronunciations can misrepresent the meanings of the words. However, controversy surrounding the script includes its representation of consonants in clusters, where many Hmong argue that the consonants are distinct and should not be represented in clusters of two or three. It is gaining popularity in China, but it is relatively disdained by speakers of Hmong Leng. It is seen as a more "pragmatic" solution to Hmong writing but a less "faithful" solution, as Hmongs hold Shong Lue Yang, and less indicative of a Hmong "identity".script was used in the 1980s by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church founded by Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, which moved around California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Carolina, Colorado, and many other states. Initially, it was not as widely accepted outside of the members of the church. The script seems to bear strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different. The Unicode proposal for this script uses the name 'Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script'. This script has been used by members of the United Christians Liberty Evangelical church in America for more than 25 years, in printed material and videos. It is reported to have some use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia. On March 5, 2019, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong Script was officially published into the Unicode Standard version 12.0 with a total of 71 characters in the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong Unicode block.Historically used scripts
Sayaboury script
This is an alphabet that was used, at the very least, by Hmong residents of Sainyabuli Province in Laos, who came to a UN Refugee Camp in Chiang Kham, Thailand, as a result of the Vietnam War. It is called by anthropologists as "Ntawv Puaj Txwm"., which means "original writing". Nine volumes of texts reported to be 700–800 years old were handed over by Ga Va Her to Nina Wimuttikosol, an officer that Her had befriended while in the camp. Allegedly, these writings had been revealed by the Hmong deity La Bi Mi Nu, and the information in these manuscripts was then transcribed. Wimuttikosol gave it to Jacques Lemoine, a known French anthropologist in the field. It has a set of unusual features, which if discovered to be original, could dramatically alter the field of Hmong research. It is not known how much further research is currently being undertaken. The preliminary Unicode proposal for this script uses the name 'Eebee Hmong script'. It is used to write the Hmong Daw dialect that is commonly spoken in Laos and in the United States.Pa Chai script
was a leader of the Hmong in the early twentieth century. He was seen as the "Chao Fa" of the Hmong people before Shong Lue Yang, although his power was not as far-reaching. He was a leader in the movement against the French colonial empire, and one day, he was taken to the "Lord of the Sky and the Earth", known in Hmong as Lub Ntuj Lub Teb. He received a mandate to lead the Hmong people to change their way of life and develop a new writing system, and it is said that after he returned, he displayed magical powers. These manifested in the form of two years of successful resistance against the French. Apparently, although Pa Chai had instructed his people not to attack the Lao, they did, and this caused him to lose his supposed mandate, which caused the Hmong to begin losing, and in due course, in 1921, he was killed, ending the "War of the Insane", as it was known to the French. As Shong Lue was the next "Chao Fa", this alleged militant intention constantly hung over Shong Lue's head, which contributed to the acceleration of Shong Lue's defamation, mystery, and assassination. Pa Chai's script has reasonable success, with villagers reporting that they had seen Pa Chai's script, encoded laws, and writing methods during the French colonial rule. It is unknown what has survived.