History of Shinto
is a religion native to Japan with a centuries'-long history tied to various influences in origin.
Although historians debate the point at which it is suitable to begin referring to Shinto as a distinct religion, kami veneration has been traced back to Japan's Yayoi period. Buddhism entered Japan at the end of the Kofun period and spread rapidly. Religious syncretization made kami worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called shinbutsu-shūgō. The kami came to be viewed as part of Buddhist cosmology and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically. The earliest written tradition regarding kami worship was recorded in the 8th-century Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. In ensuing centuries, shinbutsu-shūgō was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During the Meiji era, Japan's nationalist leadership expelled Buddhist influence from kami worship and formed State Shinto, which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence and citizens were encouraged to worship the emperor as a kami. With the formation of the Japanese Empire in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat in World War II, Shinto was formally separated from the state.
Even among experts, there is no definitive agreement on what Shinto is, what it encompasses, or even where the history of Shinto begins. Shinto scholar Shōji Okada argues the bedrock of Shinto was laid between the Yayoi period and the Kofun period but also lays out four possible points in history when organized Shinto came into being as a religion. These are as follows :
- In the 7th century with the formation of Ritsuryō system
- In the 8th and 9th centuries when the Imperial court developed an awareness of Shinto
- In the 11th and 12th centuries when an awareness of Shinto spread throughout the various regions of Japan
- In the 15th century with the emergence of Yoshida Shinto
Overview
In the Middle Ages, there was a movement to create doctrine for Shinto and make it a societal norm among the people. In the Kamakura period, the Kamakura shogunate's worship of kami resulted in protections for shrines throughout the regions of Japan and the widespread worship of kami such as Kumano Gongen, Hachiman, Inari Ōkami, Amaterasu, and Tenjin beyond the limited regions in which they had seen significant worship by the common people in ancient times. As this form of Shinto spread, the intelligentsia began experimenting with interpreting Shinto through Buddhist philosophy, a movement which began with Ryōbu Shintō established by mikkyō monks, and supported the honji suijaku theory which claimed the kami were manifestations of Buddhas. As shrines began to feel threatened by this, they responded by creating systemized theories such as a version of the honji suijaku theory which placed kami in a superior position in relation to the Buddhas with a foundation in a background belief of Japan as a divine land following Japan's victory against the Mongol invaders. They also created Ise Shinto based on the 2=神道五部書. Later, when many ancient texts were lost in the Ōnin War during the Muromachi period, the opportunity allowed Yoshida Kanetomo to create false documents which he used to establish Yoshida Shinto, the first Shinto theory that was independent from Buddhism but had its own unique doctrine, texts, and rituals. Yoshida Shinto quickly rose to prominence, helped by the societal instability of this period of war, resulting in widespread adoption among the upper class which made it the core form of Shinto at the time. Yoshida Shinto was also involved with the establishment of shrines dedicated to Sengoku Daimyō from the Sengoku period to the Azuchi–Momoyama period.
Japan's modern era primarily consists of the Edo period. During this period, the Tokugawa shogunate reformed the administration of shrines, and the improved societal stability and transportation infrastructure of the time led to increased religious activity among the common people in the form of pilgrimages to Ise Shrine and people-led festivals. In contrast, Buddhism, which had previously enjoyed a position as the state religion, had entered a period of philosophical stagnation. As this was happening, mainstream Shinto philosophies of the early Edo period become more closely linked with the Cheng-Zhu school of Neo-Confucianism as they became critical of Buddhism, leading to a shift from Buddhist Shinto to Confucian Shinto such as Suika Shinto. In the mid Edo period, there came a development of the academic field of kokugaku which integrated Shinto into the empirical study of Japanese classics, such as the study of poetry and linguistics. Kokugaku engaged with Confucian Shinto and flourished in this period. Kokugaku scholar Motoori Norinaga strongly criticized the practice of interpreting Shinto through Buddhism or Confucianism, which had been transmitted from China, and was a proponent for the empirical research of Shinto texts. In the late Edo period, Hirata Atsutane's Fukko Shinto adopted these religious studies of Motoori, though modified some aspects. Fukko Shinto placed a strong emphasis on the afterlife after being influenced by Christianity and also claimed all the myths of the world, from China, India, and in Christianity, were variations on Japanese myth. It then became involved in the restoration of imperial rule. However, Motoori's arguments faced criticism in the Mito Domain for rejecting Confucianism. In this region, scholars fused kokugaku with the Confucian ethics of loyalty and filial piety to create late Mitogaku. By connecting Confucianism and Shinto, Late Mitogaku advocated for the imperial rule of Japan, becoming fertile grounds for the development of shishi philosophies of the final years of the Edo period.
After the shogunate fell and Japan entered the modern era, the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule tied Shinto to government in a move by the new government to unify ritual and rule. The Taikyo Proclamation led to the spread of Shinto proselytization, while the 2=神仏判然令 aimed to separate Shinto and Buddhism, resulting in an extreme form of haibutsu kishaku in which many Buddhist temples and statues were destroyed. The Meiji government then formed a system for State Shinto, where the state administrated over shrines with the stance that the rituals of Shinto were state rituals. Afterwards, the faction supporting the union of government and religion were ousted by those seeking a separation of church and state. This resulted in Shinto being defined as non-religious and the creation of Secular Shrine Theory which provided shines with status as government organizations, and regional shrines were cut off from government funding. In response, the Shinto priesthood formed the National Association of Shinto Priests and began a movement to reinstate the Department of Divinities in order to receive public funds. Members of the Shinto priesthood who opposed the government as well as Shinto philosophers criticized the State Shinto system for defining Shinto as non-religious and for eliminating the teaching of Shinto philosophy, and private Shinto organizations were established in the form of the thirteen sects of Sect Shinto. After the end of World War II, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers issued the Religious Corporations Order which identified State Shinto as a source of nationalistic ideology and changed shrines into religious corporations under the umbrella of the Association of Shinto Shrines. Shrines lost their status as government organizations, but gained the freedom to conduct religious activities, allowing some shrines to achieve a financial prosperity previously unattainable. Now, shrines play a steady role in annual events and ceremonies for life events.
Ancient times
Pre-Ritsuryō Rituals
As rice cultivation spread through the Japanese archipelago from the late Jomon into the Yayoi period, a type of nature worship based on the cultivation of rice also arose. This belief was based on the idea that nature and the kami were one, and that sacrifices and rituals prevented the kami from ravishing the land in the form of natural disasters.In the Yayoi period, several Shinto practices appeared that had clear similarities to those seen in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. Archeological finds supporting this include finds believed to be in a similar vein as shrines, such as a new style of square-shaped burial mounds, bronze ritualistic items from archeological sites including the Kōjindani Site, and large buildings with freestanding roof pillars, an architectural feature in common with later shrines, an example of which is seen at the Ikegami-Sone Site. Charred bones of deer and other animals used for divination have also been found in the vicinity of such sites, as well as grave goods such as mirrors, swords, and beads.
Around the 3rd century, what would become the Makimuku ruins began to develop in the Yamato Province near Mount Miwa, and early, large-scale zenpokoenfun began to emerge as well, such as the Hashihaka kofun. It is believed the Yamato Kingship was established in this period. The 3rd century is also the estimated time of creation of the triangular-rimmed shinjūkyō passed down by the 2=鏡作坐天照御魂神社 shrine as well as the iron sword excavated at Isonokami Shrine. These objects resemble the holy sword and mirror described in the Kojiki and Nihon Shiki, and allowed for a clearer understanding of elements that would lead to the Shinto faith later.
The first state Shinto rituals occurred in the 4th century. Large numbers of religious artifacts such as bronze mirrors and iron weapons with similarities to the kofun grave goods of the late 4th century in the Yamato region have been excavated from Munakata Taisha on Okinoshima in Munakata, Fukuoka. This indicates that Yamato Kingship rituals began on Okinoshima prior to this. Ritual objects such as small bronze mirrors have also been excavated at Mount Miwa which match those at Munakata Taisha, which lends credibility to the theory that rituals at Mount Miwa began at approximately the same time as those on Okinoshima. It is believed that the 4th century, with the rituals held at the early shrines of Munaka Taisha and Ōmiwa Shrine, was when the base of the following Shinto faith developed.
The 5th century sees the spread 2=石製模造品 across Japan. These were originally used in rituals in the Yamato region, and their spread suggests the Yamato Kingship expanded across the Japanese archipelago. Of particular note are the many sekisei mozōhin of haji pottery, takatsuki tables, and magatama beads discovered on the eastern side of the country at the Miyanaka Jōri Site Ōfunatsu of Kashima, Ibaraki or the Odaki Ryōgenji Site in Minamibōsō, Chiba, which indicates Yamato Kingship rituals were taking place in these locations. It is believed the Imperial Court later valued the rituals in these regions which led to the establishment of the Kashima Shrine and Awa Shrine with defined holy precincts.
Other religious objects of the 5th century include iron grave goods in kofun, as well as sue pottery and cloth excavated from various sites including the Senzokudai Site in Chiba Prefecture and Shussaku Site in Ehime Prefecture, and, therefore, this era is believed to be when the precursors of modern Shinto religious offerings developed.
The 6th century brings changes in kofun funerary rituals and a shift from vertical stone burial chambers to horizontal. The exact nature of these kofun funerary rituals was determined by researching haniwa clay figures depicting people using weapons or tools, gifted animals, and nobles riding horses. These figures give a concrete view at these rituals. The shift from vertical to horizontal stone burial chambers suggests the development of beliefs about the nature of the soul in which the soul leaves the body after death. This can be seen in myths in the Kojiki and Nihon Shiki and is believed to have had an impact on the formation of belief in kami with humanlike aspects.