Chinese Buddhism


Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism is a Sinicized form of Mahayana Buddhism, which draws on the Chinese Buddhist canon as well as numerous Chinese traditions. It's is the largest institutionalized religion in mainland China., there are an estimated 42 to 53 million Chinese Buddhists in the People's Republic of China. It is also a majoritary religion in Taiwan and Singapore, as well as among the Chinese diaspora.
Buddhism was first introduced to China during the Han dynasty. It was promoted by multiple emperors, especially during the Tang dynasty, which helped it spread across the country. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the countries of the East Asian cultural sphere, such as North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, Pure Land, and Zhenyan Buddhism.
From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by pre-existing Chinese religions and philosophy, especially Confucianism and Taoism, but also Chinese folk religion. The Chinese Buddhist canon also draws from those traditions and their rituals.

History

The establishment of Buddhism in China

Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during the Han dynasty, and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially, Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. Centuries after Buddhism originated in India, Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in the 1st century CE via Tibet.
One of the first tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd-century Parthian, An Shigao, who worked in the capital of Luoyang. His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema, as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa. During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya by all Chinese Buddhist schools.
In the 4th-century, northern China fell into political upheaval and division during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Many of these kingdoms were led by non-Han rulers, who were drawn to Buddhism partially due to its foreign elements. Monks such as Fotu Cheng held high-ranking government positions, and the people were allowed to freely practice the religion. Buddhism's growing popularity also permeated to the south, where the Chinese Eastern Jin dynasty ruled.
The arrival of the Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The high-quality translations produced by his disciples had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun. His work also established an Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.
By the 460s, Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are great examples of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.
Another important translator was Paramārtha, who, along with his Chinese disciples, translated numerous works on Abhidharma, Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts. The work of other sixth-century translators such as Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school, also known as the Consciousness-Only school.

The development of a Chinese Buddhism

The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:
During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a group of translators responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara tradition in East Asia.
The Tang era was a period of significant development for Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. The religion was popular with all social classes and was influential on Chinese culture, having more followers than Taoism. Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets such as Wang Wei and Bo Juyi. Artistic complexes from this period, such as the Longmen Grottoes, also attest to the artistic expression of Chinese Buddhism during this era.
A well-known proponent of the religion during the Tang era was Empress Wu Zetian, who is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex. She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva.
The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, and their establishment of Zhenyan Buddhism from 716 to 720, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites, and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang, its influence among the upper classes was significant.
The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for taxes and wealth.
File:TheWoodenTowerOfYing1.jpg|thumb|left|Pagoda of Fogong Temple at Ying County, Shanxi, constructed 1056–1195 during the Liao dynasty
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, an era of political upheaval and civil war, negatively impacted the religion. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.
The Song dynasty saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. During this era, Chan Buddhism grew to become the most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and an organized system of temple rank and administration. It was during this time that the Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the koan collections of the Linji school, such as the Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate.
Likewise, during this time, the works of Hongzhi Zhengjue developed the meditation method of silent illumination. Both of these traditions of Chan practice were influential on East Asian Zen Buddhism.
The Yuan dynasty patronized Tibetan Buddhism; thus, during this period, there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as being an unorthodox path.
During the Ming dynasty, there was a revival of the study of Chinese traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong. At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite syncretic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.

Modernity

During the Qing dynasty, the imperial court shifted its support to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism suffered during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the Taiping Rebellion, which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw the arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to the Western powers after the Opium Wars.
During the Republican period, there were efforts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism in response to the challenges of modernity. The most notable of these reformers were the Humanistic Buddhists, such as Taixu and Yin Shun. Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits such as education and charitable work. There was also a revival of Chan by Hsu Yun and Sheng Yen as well as a revival of Tiantai by Dixian and Tanxu.

People's Republic of China

After the Chinese Communist Revolution, many Buddhists and monastics joined the Republican exodus to Taiwan. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including Fo Guang Shan, Dharma Drum Mountain, and Tzu Chi. These organizations also became influential in Mainland China after the end of the Cultural Revolution.
Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution. Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the Four Olds, as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as counter-revolutionary. Buddhist monks were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed, and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public display of their religion.
During the normalization period led by Deng Xiaoping, a revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period that saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples such as the Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple, as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks such as Zhenchan and Mengcan, who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as the United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Monks were now required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries.
The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country. It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party.