Cinematography
Cinematography is the art of motion picture photography.
Cinematographers use a lens to focus reflected light from objects into a real image that is transferred to some image sensor or light-sensitive material inside the movie camera. These exposures are created sequentially and preserved for later processing and viewing as a motion picture. Capturing images with an electronic image sensor produces an electrical charge for each pixel in the image, which is electronically processed and stored in a video file for subsequent processing or display. Images captured with photographic emulsion result in a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, which are chemically "developed" into a visible image. The images on the film stock are projected for viewing in the same motion picture.
Cinematography finds uses in many fields of science and business, as well as for entertainment purposes and mass communication.
History
Precursors
In the 1830s, three different solutions for moving images were invented based on the concept of revolving drums and disks, the stroboscope by Simon von Stampfer in Austria, the phenakistoscope by Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and the zoetrope by William Horner in Britain.In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make continuous recordings of the varying indications of meteorological and geomagnetic instruments over time. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.
William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867 that showed animated pictures called the "wheel of life" or "zoopraxiscope". In it moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit.
On 19 June 1878, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named "Sallie Gardner" in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a track parallel to the horse's, and each camera shutter was controlled by a tripwire triggered by the horse's hooves. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, taking pictures at one-thousandth of a second. At the end of the decade, Muybridge had adapted sequences of his photographs to a zoopraxiscope for short, primitive projected "movies", which were sensations on his lecture tours by 1879 or 1880.
Four years later, in 1882, French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey invented a chronophotographic gun, which was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second and recording all the frames of the same picture.
The late nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes but for scientific exploration as well. French biologist and filmmaker Jean Painleve lobbied heavily for the use of film in the scientific field, as the new medium was more efficient in capturing and documenting the behavior, movement, and environment of microorganisms, cells, and bacteria, than the naked eye. The introduction of film into scientific fields allowed for not only the viewing of "new images and objects, such as cells and natural objects, but also the viewing of them in real time", whereas prior to the invention of moving pictures, scientists and doctors alike had to rely on hand-drawn sketches of human anatomy and its microorganisms. This posed a great inconvenience to the scientific and medical worlds. The development of film and increased usage of cameras allowed doctors and scientists to grasp a better understanding and knowledge of their projects.
The origins of today's cinema go back to the Lumière brothers, Auguste and Louis, who in 1895 developed a machine called the Cinematographe, which had the ability to capture and show moving images.
The early era of cinema saw rapid innovation. In the early-to-mid-20th Century, filmmakers discovered and applied new methods such as editing, special effects, close-ups, sound, widescreen, color films, and more. Hollywood began to emerge as the Mecca of the film industry, and many of the famous studios from that time still exist over 100 years later in the early-mid 21st Century.
Film
The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince in Roundhay, Leeds, England, on October 14, 1888, is the earliest surviving motion picture. This movie was shot on paper film.An experimental film camera was developed by British inventor William Friese Greene and patented in 1889. W. K. L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus, the Kinetograph, patented in 1891. This camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of this work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson, the Kinetoscope. Contained within a large box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie.
In the following year, Charles Francis Jenkins and his projector, the Phantoscope, made a successful audience viewing while Louis and Auguste Lumière perfected the Cinématographe, an apparatus that took, printed, and projected film, in Paris in December 1895. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, pictures to a paying audience of more than one person.
In 1896, movie theaters were open in France ; Italy ; Brussels; and London. The chronological improvements in the medium may be listed concisely. In 1896, Edison showed his improved Vitascope projector, the first commercially successful projector in the U.S. Cooper Hewitt invented mercury lamps which made it practical to shoot films indoors without sunlight in 1905. The first animated cartoon was produced in 1906. Credits began to appear at the beginning of motion pictures in 1911. The Bell and Howell 2709 movie camera invented in 1915 allowed directors to make close-ups without physically moving the camera. By the late 1920s, most of the movies produced were sound films. Wide screen formats were first experimented within the 1950s. By the 1970s, most movies were color films. IMAX and other 70mm formats gained popularity. Wide distribution of films became commonplace, setting the ground for "blockbusters." Film cinematography dominated the motion picture industry from its inception until the 2010s when digital cinematography became dominant. Film cinematography is still used by some directors, especially in specific applications or out of fondness for the format.
Black and white
From its birth in the 1880s, movies were predominantly monochrome. Contrary to popular belief, monochrome does not always mean black-and-white; it means a movie shot in a single tone or color. Since the cost of tinted film bases was substantially higher, most movies were produced in black-and-white monochrome. Even with the advent of early color experiments, the greater expense of color meant films were mostly made in black-and-white until the 1950s, when cheaper color processes were introduced. By the 1960s, color became by far the dominant film stock. In the coming decades, the usage of color film greatly increased, while monochrome films became scarce.Black-and-white cinematography is a technique used where the images are captured and presented in shades of gray, without color. This artistic approach has a rich history and has been employed in films throughout cinema's evolution. It is a powerful tool that allows filmmakers to emphasize contrast, texture, and lighting, enhancing the visual storytelling experience. The use of black-and-white cinematography dates back to early cinema when color film was not yet available. Filmmakers relied on this technique to create visually striking and atmospheric films. Even with the advent of color film technology, black-and-white cinematography continued to be utilized for artistic and thematic purposes.
File:Casablanca trailer.webm|thumb|Casablanca is one of many films to utilize black and white cinematography to create atmospheric scenes. Its trailer showcases the "Kiss Me" scene featuring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman. It depicts two characters under shadows, soft lighting, and contrast to create a sense of longing and emotional intensity. The absence of color makes the actors have more defined facial expressions, drawing attention to the deep emotion conveyed between Rick Blain and Ilsa Lund.
Ken Dancyger's book The Technique of Film and Video Editing: History, Theory, and Practice provides insights into the historical and theoretical aspects of black-and-white cinematography. Dancyger explores how this technique has been employed, examining its impact on storytelling, mood, and visual aesthetics. The book delves into the artistic choices and technical considerations involved in creating compelling black-and-white imagery, offering an understanding of the technique.
Black-and-white cinematography allows filmmakers to focus on the interplay of light and shadow, emphasizing the contrast between different elements within a scene. This technique can evoke a sense of nostalgia, evoke a specific time period, or create a timeless and classic feel. By stripping away color, filmmakers can emphasize the composition, shapes, and textures within the frame, enhancing the visual impact. Notable films that have employed black-and-white cinematography include classics such as Casablanca, Raging Bull, and Schindler's List. These films showcase the power and versatility of black-and-white cinematography in creating emotionally resonant visuals. Black-and-white cinematography remains a relevant and widely used technique in modern filmmaking. It continues to be employed by filmmakers to evoke specific moods, convey a sense of timelessness, and enhance the artistic expression of their stories.
Color
After the advent of motion pictures, a tremendous amount of energy was invested in the production of photography in natural color. The invention of the talking picture further increased the demand for the use of color photography. However, in comparison to other technological advances of the time, the arrival of color photography was a relatively slow process.Early movies were not actually color movies since they were shot monochrome and hand-colored or machine-colored afterward. The earliest such example is the hand-tinted Annabelle Serpentine Dance in 1895 by Edison Manufacturing Company. Machine-based tinting later became popular. Tinting continued until the advent of natural color cinematography in the 1910s. Many black-and-white movies have been colorized recently using digital tinting. This includes footage shot from both world wars, sporting events and political propaganda.
In 1902, Edward Raymond Turner produced the first films with a natural color process rather than using colorization techniques. In 1909, Kinemacolor was first shown to the public.
In 1917, the earliest version of Technicolor was introduced. Kodachrome was introduced in 1935. Eastmancolor was introduced in 1950 and became the color standard for the rest of the century.
In the 2010s, color films were largely superseded by color digital cinematography.