Face (sociological concept)


In sociology, face refers to a class of behaviors and customs, associated with the morality, honor, and authority of an individual, and their image within social groups. Face is linked to the dignity and prestige that a person enjoys in terms of their social relationships. This idea, with varying nuances, is observed in many societies and cultures, including Chinese, Arab, Indonesian, Korean, Malaysian, Laotian, Indian, Japanese, Vietnamese, Filipino, Thai, Persian, Russian and other East Slavic cultures.
The usage of "face" in the English language is borrowed from Chinese. Face has particularly complex dynamics and meanings within the context of Chinese culture and is closely associated with Confucianism. The Chinese concept of face has also heavily influenced the cultures of Japan and Korea.

Definitions

Although Chinese writer Lin Yutang claimed "face cannot be translated or defined", these definitions have been created:
  • Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes.
  • Face is the respectability and/or deference which a person can claim for themself or from others.
  • Face is a quality that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, and must be constantly attended to in interaction.
  • Face is a sense of worth that comes from knowing one's status and reflecting concern with the congruence between one's performance or appearance and one's real worth.
  • "Face" means "sociodynamic valuation", a lexical hyponym of words meaning "prestige; dignity; honor; respect; status".

    By culture

East Asia

Chinese

In China, in particular, the concepts of mianzi, lian and yan play an extremely important role in the fabric of society.
In Chinese culture, "face" refers to two distinct concepts, although linked in Chinese social relations. One is mianzi, and the other is lian, which are used regularly in everyday language although not so much in formal writing.
Two influential Chinese authors explained face. The Chinese writer Lu Xun referred to the American missionary Arthur Henderson Smith's interpretation.
Lin Yutang considered the psychology of "face":
The concept of face has a significant role in Chinese diplomacy.
Miàn "face; personal esteem; countenance; surface; side" occurs in words like:
  • miànzi "face; side; reputation; self-respect; prestige, honor; social standing." It is similar to the concept of "keeping up with appearances".
  • miànmù "face; appearance; respect; social standing; prestige; honor "
  • miànpí "facial skin; complexion; feelings; sensitivity; sense of shame"
  • tǐmiàn "face; good looking; honor; dignity; prestige"
  • qíngmian "face; prestige; favor; kindness; partiality"
Hsien-chin Hu says “face”
Liǎn "face; countenance; respect; reputation; prestige" is seen in several face words:
  • liǎnshàng "one's face; honor; respect"
  • liǎnmiàn "face; self-respect; prestige; influence"
  • liǎnpí "face; sensitivity; compassion"
Hu contrasts méiyǒu liǎn "audacious; wanton; shameless" as "the most severe condemnation that can be made of a person" and bùyào liǎn "shameless; selfishly inconsiderate" as "a serious accusation meaning that ego does not care what society thinks of his character, that he is ready to obtain benefits for himself in defiance of moral standards".
Yán "face; prestige; reputation; honor" occurs in the common expression diū yán 丟顏 and the words:
  • yánhòu or hòuyán 厚顏 "thick-skinned; brazen; shameless; impudent"
  • yánmiàn "face; honor; prestige"

    Japanese

In Japan, the concept of face is known as mentsu, which is defined as “the public image people want to present within a given social framework”. More specifically, mentsu can only be established when in social situations where others are present. It is associated with the fulfillment of one's social role as expected by others. There are two main types of face in Japanese culture:
  • Menboku refers to “aspects of the self approved of or respectability given by others”. This encompasses the fulfillment of one's duty in social settings.
  • Taimen refers to the projected self or ostentation, which involves “the duty to clear one’s reputation of insult or imputation of failure”.
The terms menboku and taimen were borrowed into Japanese from the Chinese miànmù and tǐmiàn during the Heian period, while mentsu, from miànzi, entered the language in the 1920s–1930s.
The need for positive self-regard is culturally variant and Japanese motivations for positive self-regard differ from those of other cultures in that it is primarily self-critically focused. From a young age, children are encouraged by parents to become socially shared images of the ideal person through the phrase “rashii”. In this way, social roles influence how Japanese identify themselves but also establish the desirable image Japanese people wish to present in front of others. “Japanese competition characterized by yokonarabi, emphasizing not on surpassing others, but on not falling behind others”. The continual effort to improve oneself as summarized by the saying gambarimasu can be viewed as an expression to secure the esteem of others, illustrating high motivations to maintain public face in Japanese culture.
In contrast to the Chinese notion of mianzi which emphasizes one's power, the Japanese notion of mentsu places emphasis on social roles. A comparative study of Japanese and Chinese student's perceptions of face revealed that Japanese students tend to be more concerned about face in situations relating to social status and appropriate treatment of others based on social status, while Chinese students tend to be more concerned in situations concerning evaluations of competence or performance.
The integration of face in Japanese culture is evident in the language and cultural norms. According to Matsumoto 1988, “To attend to each other’s face in Japanese culture is to recognize each other’s social position and to convey such a recognition through the proper linguistic means, including formulaic expressions, honorifics, verbs of giving and receiving, and other “relation-acknowledging devices”. The Japanese cultural norms of honne and tatemae  , a commonly understood model of communication whereby individuals put up a polite “front” that hides their real beliefs, emphasize the importance placed on carrying out social responsibility in Japanese society.
In the politeness-orientated Japanese society, simple sentences in English would have many variations in Japanese where the speaker must make linguistic choices based on their interpersonal relationship with the listener. Common greetings in Japanese such as yoroshiku ''onegaishimasu highlight the debt-sensitive culture in Japan. By emphasizing the speaker's debt to giving credit to the listener, one implies the debt will be repaid, this is rooted in the Japanese concept of face. In addition, phrases such as sumimasen, originally an expression for apology but encompasses feelings of both gratitude and apology, are used across a variety of contexts, highlighting the use of language to maintain and reinforce smooth face-to-face interactions within Japanese society.
A study investigating the conditions that led to feelings of face-loss in Japanese participants revealed that the presence of others and engagement in activities related to social roles led to a stronger face-loss experience.  When examining mentsu'' in Japan, it was revealed that people generally regard experiences of losing one's own face as unpleasant. Experiences of face-saving and face-loss can influence one's mood and self-esteem. Moreover, people's moods can be influenced by whether the face of those close to them are saved. Findings also reveal that caring for others through saving face can have a positive impact on one's interpersonal relationships with others.

Korean

The concept of "face" or chemyeon, borrowed from the Chinese tǐmiàn, is extremely important in Korean culture.

Southeast Asian

Burmese (Myanmar)

The concept of "face" is important in Burmese society. The Burmese word for face is myet-hna, and is used in many compound words relating to the concept of "face." The doublets myet-hna pyet and myet-hna phyet mean to "lose face" and "to cause the loss of face" respectively. The loss of face is associated with an inability to control one's feelings and lose composure, especially in public.

Khmer (Cambodian)

The Khmer word for face is muk. Bat muk translates literally as 'lose face'. Tuk muk translates literally as 'save face' or 'preserve face'. This concept is understood and treated much the same in Cambodia as elsewhere in Asia.

Thai

The Thai word for face is naa. There are basically two main ways of expressing loss of face: One, sia naa, translates literally as 'lose face.' Another term, khai naa means 'sale of face'. The actual connotation of khai naa is that the person who lost face did so through fault of self or through the thoughtless action of another. As in China and other regions where loss of face is important, the Thai version involves sociodynamic status.

Western

English

Several American newspapers from 1874 listed the concept in a column of "Chinese Proverbs" or "Facts & Fancies" stating "The Chinese, be it observed, are great sticklers for propriety and respectability, and are very much afraid of what they term "losing face"." Loss of face occurs in The Times : "Each wishes to concede only what can be conceded without loss of 'face'".
Save face was coined from lose face applying the semantic opposition between lose and save.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines "save face" as: "To keep, protect or guard from damage, loss, or destruction", and elaborates,
Among the English words of Chinese origin, lose face is an uncommon verb phrase and a unique semantic loan translation. Most Anglo-Chinese borrowings are nouns, with a few exceptions such as to kowtow, to Shanghai, to brainwash, and lose face. English face, meaning "prestige" or "honor", is the only case of a Chinese semantic loan. Semantic loans extend an indigenous word's meaning in conformity with a foreign model. The vast majority of English words from Chinese are ordinary loanwords with regular phonemic adaptation. A few are calques where a borrowing is blended with native elements. Face meaning "prestige" is technically a loan synonym, owing to semantic overlap between the native English meaning "outward semblance; effrontery" and the borrowed Chinese meaning "prestige; dignity".
When face acquired its Chinese sense of "prestige; honor", it filled a lexical gap in the English lexicon. Chan and Kwok write,
Carr concludes,