Kru languages


The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.

Classification

According to Güldemann, Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo. Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.

Etymology

The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".

History

Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade". The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.

Current status

Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire". "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts". The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English or French as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons". The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood.

Subgroups and associated languages

The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.
Marchese's classification of Kru languages is as follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
  • Kru
  • *Sɛmɛ
  • *
  • **Aizi
  • **Kuwaa
  • **Kru proper
  • ***Eastern Kru
  • ****Bakwe
  • *****Bakwe
  • *****Wane
  • ****Bété
  • *****Kuya
  • *****Godié
  • ****Dida
  • ****Kwadia
  • ***Western Kru
  • ****Bassa
  • *****Bassa
  • *****Dewoin
  • *****Gbii
  • ****Grebo
  • *****Grebo
  • *****Krumen
  • *****Glio-Oubi
  • ****Klao
  • *****Klao
  • *****Tajuasohn
  • ****Wèè
  • *****Guere
  • ******Daho-Doo
  • ******Glaro-Twabo
  • ******Sapo
  • ******Guere
  • ******Krahn
  • *****Nyabwa
  • *****Konobo
  • *****Wobé
Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.

Grammar

Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object, but can also often be subject-object-verb.

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewatereatname
Tepojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ̂wũ̂tdâblώklátûgbɛ̀nîjẽ́dîdώ
Jrweɟrónω̃̂ã̂mɪ̃̂ã̂ɲɛ̃́mɛ̃̂wṹklώω̂klátúwɛ̀nĩ́ẽ́dîdɛ̂ɲɔ̃́
Guereɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃mē̃õ̀ŋɔ̄̃ɲmɔ̄̃kpâtūnídîɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnə̃̂mɛ̄̃õ̀ŋʷɔ̄̃nmɔ̄kpâtūnĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Niabouaɟîrîlòkûmánáɲéɲéméɛ̃̀ŋʷɔ̄̃ɲēmōkpátūnîdīɲéɲé
Bété ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdrúkwâsūɲûlíŋʉ̂nɪ̂
Bété jirijúkwɨ́límə́ɲə́gʌ̂lʌ̂mɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûrûkwásûɲúdīŋʉ́ɲɪ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēsūúɲúlījlɪ́
Godiéjɨdíɲūkúlúmə́ɲə́gə̄lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄drùféèsūɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Koyojɪjēɲúkiwí—glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēsūúɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dólūkwíjèsūɲúlîŋlɪ́
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪli—

An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonewatereatname
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekranrɪli
Vatajéɲêflúmênêglàmeɔ̄nɪ̄dūlūfâɲúlî
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dòlūkwíjèɲúlîŋlɪ́
Koyojíjēɲúkwlíŋʉ́nʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Godiéɲūkúlúmə́ňə́gə̀lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄dřùféèɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēɲúlījlɪ́
Bété jiřijúkwɨ́límə́ňə́gʌ̂lâmɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûřûkwáɲúlīnʉ́nɪ́
Bété ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdřúkwâɲúlínʉ̀nɪ̂
Niaboualòkûmə́náɲénéméɛ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄ɲēmōkpánîdīɲéné
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnẽ̂mɛ̄ɔ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄nmɔ̄kpânĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Guéréɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄mẽ̄õ̀ŋɔ̃̄ɲmɔ̃̄kpânídìɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Konobojidɔnaomlãmɛdaluoklaɲɛdiɲi
Oubijīrōnōāmēã̄ŋudòùlākalaɲɛ́dīdɛ̄ɲírṍ
Bakweɲʉ́ɲákúlúmňṍglɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́tùřúkɔ̄ōnēɟɨnrɪ
Tépojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ́dâblώklánîjẽ́dîdώ
Grebojênóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄ɲénɔ́klã́nĩ́díɲéné
Klaoɟínɔ̄kũ̀mnã́mɛ̄wɔ̃̄ɲnɔ̄kpã́nĩ́dīɲnɛ̃́
Bassaɟélémánámiɔwɔ̃̄nyɔmɔɔkpáníɗiŋɛ́nɛ́
Dewoingiremálã́mīlã̀wɔ̃̄ĩ́ɲimogbanízīŋɛ́lɛ́
Kuwaasĩ̌nɔiɲũmɛ̀wũwɔ̃̀tòyòkwanímíɟìɲɛlɛ̃
Sɛmɛɲatasjẽmarɲendɛkõtõkparnũdijĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
ClassificationLanguage12345678910
KuwaaKuwaa deesɔ̃rtãã̀ɲìjɛ̀hɛwàyɔ̀ɔwɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ kɔrlɔrɔ̃r kwatãã̀ kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ kowaa
SemeSeme byẽ́ẽnĩ́ĩ̄tyáāryūrkwɛ̃̄lkpã̄âkĩ̄îkprɛ̄n̂kɛ̄lfú
SemeSeme dyuɔ̃15nĩ15tyɛr15yur3kwɛ̃l3k͡pa4a34kyi4ĩ34k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34kal3fu1
Eastern, BakweBakwéɗôːsɔ̂ːtʌ̄ːmɾɔ̄ːɡ͡bə̀ə̄ŋǔːɗō ŋǔːsɔ̄ ŋǔːtʌ̄ ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ pʊ̀
Eastern, BakweWanédo³ / ɗo³sɔ²ta³ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ŋʷũ⁴²ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
Eastern, BeteDaloa Bétéɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, BeteGuiberoua Bétéɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, BeteGodiéɓlōōsɔ́ɔ́tāāŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nāŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Bete, EasternGagnoa Bétéɓɵ̯̀ɺōsɔ̋tɑ̄mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡búɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
Eastern, Bete, EasternGuébie Bétéɡ͡bɔlɔ².³so⁴ta³¹mɔna¹.³¹mŋɡ͡be²mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ kɔɡ͡ba².³
Eastern, Bete, EasternKouyaɓlòsɔ́tāmnʊ̀àɡ͡buɡ͡beliɓlò ɡ͡besɔ́ ɡ͡betā ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à kuɡ͡bua
Eastern, DidaYocoboué Didabólómwɔsɔ́mwɔtámwɔnáɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ ɛmɓáta ɛmvwanákóɡ͡ba
Eastern, DidaNeyoɓɔ̄lósɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāɡ͡bɪ́ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ ɡ͡básɔ́ ɡ͡bátā fɛ̄nā kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, KwadiaKodiaɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³²sɔː²taː²mɔna⁴³ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ kʊɡ͡ba³³
Western, BassaBassaɖò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩinyɛhm̀m̌mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ ɓaɖa-bùè
Western, BassaDewoin ɡ͡bǒsɔ̃́tahĩinyɛhm̀m̌meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ meɖe-sɔ̃́ meɖe-ta meɖe-hĩinyɛ vù
Western, BassaGbasei dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱsɔ̃́tãɲ̀yɛ̃m̀ḿm̀mɽědɔ̀ m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ m̀mɽětã́ m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ báɽápʰùwe
Western, BassaGbii dòò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩ̀nyɛhm̀m̀mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ ɓaɖabùè
Western, Grebo, Glio-OubiGlio-Oubidōhwə̃tã́hə̃ɡ͡bə̀hṹdò hũ̀sɔ́ mɛra mɛ́ɲɛ̀ pue
Western, Grebo, IvorianPye Krumendòhʋɛ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌hũ̀jārō hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ hũ̀jātā hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ pù
Western, Grebo, IvorianTepo Krumen dòhɔ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌huõ̀nɔ̀ nɪ́pātā nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ sēlédò pù
Western, Grebo, IvorianTepo Krumen dôɔ̄ɛ́ntāhɛ̀nùmùmnɔ̄dô ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n blɛ̄nbìɛ̀nùmīyándōpù
Western, Grebo, LiberianCentral Grebo dòoɔ̌ntaanhɛ̃ɛnwùunwùnɔ̀dǒ jetan ?jiinhɛ̀n ?sǒndò fù
Western, Grebo, LiberianNorthern Grebodosɔ̃̌tãhɛ̃̀m̀mmmɔ̀do nyiɛtã nnyɛɛ siědo pù
Western, KlaoKlaodôsɔ́ntannyìɛ̀mùmùnéɛ́do mùnéɛ́sɔ́n mùnéɛtan sopádo puè
Western, KlaoTajuasohndoesunn nn = ?tanhinhoomḿhon doe ḿhon sunn hinin siɛrdoe punn
Western, Wee, Guere-KrahnWestern Krahntòòsɔɔ̌nta̓a̓nnyìɛ̓m̀m̌mɛ̀o̓ mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n mɛta̓a̓ǹ mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ pùèè
Western, Wee, Guere-KrahnSapoduě / tòòsɔntannyìɛm̀m̌mɛ̀lǒ mɛ̀sɔn mɛ̌tan mɛ̌nyiɛ pùè
Western, Wee, NyabwaNyabwa do4sɔ̃2tã3ɲiɛ33mu4u1mɛ4ɛ1lo4 mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 mɛ4ɛ1tã3 mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 bue44
Western, Wee, WobeNorthern Wè too3 / due1sɔɔn2 / sɔn2taan3nyiɛ43mm41mɛ41o3 mɛ41sɔn2 mɛ41na3 mɛ41nyiɛ3 puue3

Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguageonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightninetentwentyhundred
SiamouSemejɔnḭtʸaryirokʷḛkpaakʸiiprɛkalfukarkarkʷḛ
AiziAïzimṵmɔ̰; yreiʃɪitayeɓiyugbofɔfriʃipatɛfibɔgujuyugbo
KuwaaKuwaadeesɔ̰ɔ̰ta̰à̰ɲìyɛ̀wààyòfolɛ̀kɔ̰lo̰kʷata̰à̰ko̰yḭ̀yɛ̰̀kuwakuma sɔ̰᷄kɔ̀lɛwúlú
Eastern, BakweBakwé
Eastern, DidaDida mblòmɔ̀sɔ́mɔ̀tāmɔ̀ɔ̀nāǹgbīǹgbʊfɾʊǹgbɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ǹgbàátāǹvɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́gbāgrʊ̄gwlīǹgbī
Eastern, DidaVataɓlɔ̀sɔ̍tāmɔ̀ɔ̀nāgbe̍gbòɔ́sɔ́gbɔ̍fɔ́tākógba̍golō
Eastern, BeteBété ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ̍támʊ̀nàńgbɨ́ńgbʊ́pʊ́lʊ́ńgbísɔ̍ńgbɔ̍táńgbɨ́mʊ̀nàkúgbɨ́ágʊ́lʊ́gʊ́lúgbɨ́
Eastern, BeteBété ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ́tāmʊ̀ʌ̀nān̄gbɨ́n̄gbʊ̍pʊ̍lʊ̍n̄gbi̍sógbʊ̀ʌ́tān̄gbɨ̍mʊ̀ʌ̀nākʊ̄gbʌ̍gʊ̍lʊ̍gʷʉ̍lɪ̍n̄gbɨ̍
Eastern, BeteGodiéɓʉ̄lʉ̄sɔ́tāmʊ̀ʊ̀nʌ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄pʉ̄lʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbɔ̀ɔ̄sɔ́ʌ̰̀gbàāɨʌ̄pɛɛ̀nʌ̄kʊ́gbʌ̍gɔ̀lɔ̀gʷʌ̀lɪ̀gbʉ̄
Eastern, BeteKoyoɓɔ̄lɔ̄sɔ̄tāmɔ̀nāŋ̀gbɨ́ŋ̀gbóplóŋ̀gbɔ́sɔ́ŋ̀gbátāǹvɔ̀nākʊ́gbágʊ̄lʊ̄gʊ̀lɪ̀ɲ́gbɨ́
Eastern, BeteNéyoɓʊ̄lʊ́sɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāgbɪ́gbɪ́flɔ́gbásɔ́gbátāfɛ̄nākʊ́gbáglʊ́gʷlɪ̀gbɪ́
Western, KlaoKlaodòòsʊ̰́tā̰ā̰ɲḭɛ̀mùùŋmìɛ̀dòŋmìɛ̀sɔ̰́ŋmìɛ̀tā̰sɛpáádōpūɪ̄wlʊ̄wlʊ̄mù
Western, BassaBassadɔ̀òsɔ̄ta̰hḭiɲɛhm̀m̀hɔ̰́dɔ̀
Western, BassaDéwoingbòsɔ̰tà̰ɲìɛ̄m̀m̄mɛ̀legbōmɛ̀lēslɔ̰́mɛ̀lēá̰mɛ̀le̍ɲìɛèvù
Western, GreboTépodo̍hɔ̰́ta̍hɛ̰̀m̄hwɔ̰̀nɔ̀nɪ́pa̍hɔ̰̍nɪ́pa̍ta̍se̍rédópu̍a̍ wlʊ̀wlɪ̄ m̄
Western, GreboGrébodōsɔ̰́tá̰hɛ̰᷄hm̀úbéhɛ̰᷄sīe̍dōpūnɔ́dōwōdóhúbū
Western, GreboOubidōhʷə̰tá̰hə̰gbə̀hṵ́dòhṵ̀sɔ́mɛramɛ́ɲɛ̀puegōrōgòléhm̄
Western, GreboJrwedo̍òhʊ̰́ɛ̰́ta̍a̍hɛ̰̍ɛ̰̀hm̀m̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍rʊ̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍hʊ̰́ɛ̰́hm̀m̍ja̍ta̍hm̀m̍ja̍hɛ̰̀pu̍wlʊ̍wɛ̀srɛ̍wɛ̍
Western, WeeGuérédòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄ ~ ɲīɛ̄; ɲīɛ̄ ~ ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄m̄ḿmɛ̰̄ɛ̰́ō̰mɛ̰̄sɔ̰̍mɛ̰̄á̰mɛ̰᷄ɲɛ̰̍bùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̰̍dūe̍
Western, WeeNyabwadʊ̀sɔ̰́tā̰ɲìɛ̄mùu̍mɛ̄ɛ̍lʊ̀mɛ̄ɛ̍sɔ̰̄mɛ̄ɛ̍tā̰mɛ̍ɲīēbùèglòlùéglàmùu̍
Western, WeeWobétòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲìɛ̄m̄ḿmɛ̄ɛ́ōmɛ̰̍́sɔ̰̍mɛ᷄na̍mɛ᷄ɲɛ̍pùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̍du̍e̍
Western, WeeKonobodʊbuwɛla̰a̰ɲiɛmmmɛɛɔ̰mɛlabuwɛkʷalaso̰kɛ̰ɛ̰