Birecik
Birecik is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Its area is 912 km2, and its population is 93,866. It lies on the Euphrates.
Built on a limestone cliff 400 ft. high on the left/east bank of the Euphrates, "at the upper part of a reach of that river, which runs nearly north-south, and just below a sharp bend in the stream, where it follows that course after coming from a long reach flowing more from the west".
Etymology
The historical name of the town, al-Bīra in Arabic and Bīreh in Syriac, derives from the Aramaic Bīrthā, meaning fortress. It later evolved to Birecik with the addition of the Turkish diminutive suffix, cik. It is called Belejik amongst the local population. In Ottoman times, the historical forms Bi'retü'l-Fırat, Biğrecik, and Biğrecek are also attested.Geography
Birecik is located between Gaziantep to the west and the Urfa plateau to the east.The region's elevation varies between about 400 and 500 meters above sea level, with steep slopes along the banks of the Euphrates. Low-lying areas are used for farming; the higher areas are used for livestock grazing. Cotton growing is common in the Birecik area. There are no major tributaries of the Euphrates in the area, although there are some minor streams such as the Kerzin Çayı, Hamomin Dere, Yedigöz Dere, and Pırpar Dere.
Geology
The lowest geological layer in the Birecik area is the Gaziantep Formation, which dates to Eocene through Oligocene times. Large exposed outcroppings of formation this exist around Birecik and along the Euphrates. It consists of gray, soft to medium-hard chalky limestone, marl, clayey limestone, and limestone.The upper levels of the Gaziantep Formation contain a distinct karstic limestone member. This limestone member was deposited in a shallow marine environment during Eocene-Oligocene times. Karstic springs have formed in these deposits. The transition between this unit and the rest of the Gaziantep Formation is not always clearly discernible. The closest areas to Birecik where this unit is visible are at Kalazan Dağı, Arat Dağı, and the heights to the west of ancient Zeugma.
Above the Gaziantep Formation is a basalt formation which covers a large area between Birecik and Suruç. This basalt formation was formed from basalt flows during Pliocene times. By this time, the Birecik area was no longer underwater – during the Middle and Late Miocene, tectonic activity had uplifted the region above sea level. Major basalt outcroppings exist at Arat Dağı, Karadağ, and north of Suruç. To a lesser extent, there are also outcroppings west of the Euphrates.
Most of the underlying basalt and limestone formations are now covered by more recent alluvial deposits. There is also an alluvial plain along the Euphrates, formed by clay, sand, silt, and gravel deposited during floods. This area is about 3 km wide around Birecik but only 1 km wide further north near ancient Zeugma. To the west of the Euphrates, there are also fluvial terraces.
Climate
Birecik has a semi-arid climate, which borders a mediterranean climate. The average annual temperature in Birecik is, and average annual precipitation is.Archaeology
is an Early Bronze Age cemetery near Birecik. It was used extensively for about 500 years at the beginning of the third millennium BC. More than 300 graves were excavated here in 1997 and 1998. The site was discovered during the building of the Birecik Dam as part of the GAP project.The cemetery was used between 3100-2600 BC.
Early archaeological inspection in the Birecik area was done in 1894 by J.E. Gauiter. Later, in 1946, K. Kökten conducted a survey of the area and found traces of Middle Paleolithic occupation. Another survey was done in 1989 by a team headed by G. Algaze. Among the sites first identified by the Algaze survey were Akarçay Tepe and Mezraa Teleilat, which are two of the oldest known settlements in the Euphrates basin. In 1998, with the pending construction of a dam, excavations were done on sites that would be inundated once the dam was completed. More Middle Paleolithic findings were encountered by a team headed by M. Özdoğan and N. Karul in 2001.
History
Antiquity
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica identified Birecik with ancient Apamea or its suburb Seleucia and described it as opposite Zeugma, with which it was connected by a bridge of boats. At the same time, it added that "the place seems to have had a pre-Seleucid existence as Birtha, a name which revived under Roman rule". Later discoveries have shown that the identification with Apamea and its Zeugma is false: Bali, some 17 kilometres upstream is now seen as the site of Zeugma, and there may have been no bridge of boats at Birtha/Birecik until the crossings at Zeugma and at Tell-Ahmar lost popularity. These, rather than the crossing at Birecik/Birtha may therefore be what the 1911 publication said "was used from time immemorial in the passage from North Syria to Haran, Edessa and North Mesopotamia, and was second in importance only to that at Thapsacus, by which crossed the route to Babylon and South Mesopotamia."The placing of Apamea-Zeugma further upstream and the identification of Birecik with Roman Birtha was already stated in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1917; and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography clearly identified Birtha with Birecik, although at another point it seems to confuse it with "the Zeugma of Commagene", the province on the right/west bank of the river.
The name "Birtha" is found in no ancient Greek or Roman writer, although Bithra appears in the account by Zosimus of the invasion of Mesopotamia by Roman Emperor Julian in AD 363.
The Greeks at one stage called what is now Birecik by the name Macedonopolis. The city represented by bishops at the First Council of Nicaea and the Council of Chalcedon is called by this name in Latin and Greek records, but Birtha in Syriac texts. A 6 AD inscription in Syriac found at Birecik contains an epitaph of Zarbian, "commander of Birtha".
Ancient Birtha grew when the ancient city of Carchemish became abandoned; this had happened by the middle of the 4th century. Another possible impetus for Birtha's growth was when the Romans withdrew their legion from Zeugma after a Persian attack in the mid-3rd century; some of Zeugma's inhabitants may have moved to Birtha at that point. Although Birtha served as a crossing point on the Euphrates, the main crossing was still at Zeugma.
Medieval History
The town maintained its importance during medieval times as it protected the most important crossing of the Euphrates in northern Syria. The crossing at Zeugma was no longer used, and the traffic all went to Birecik instead. Zeugma's population had probably also moved to Birecik as well. Al-bira had been under control by the Muslim Arabs from 637 until 1079 when it was conquered by the Seljuk Turk warlord Tutush but at some point afterwards it was taken by the Armenians. When the First Crusade arrived in the region, the town was under control of the Armenian Ablgharib, who was a vassal to the Armenian ruler Kogh Vasil. Matthew of Edessa states that the army of Ablgharib numbered 1,000 and that he was eventually removed by the Franks. Matthew's account of this is suspect however as it seems that his daughter married the next lord, Galeran of Le Puiset of the Montlhery family, and it seems that Ablgharib's position was preserved to a certain extent. Birecik then formed part of the County of Edessa; it was strongly fortified with a castle and served as the capital of a minor feudal lordship.In 1151, Birecik was captured by the Artukid ruler Timurtaş of Mardin, an ally of the Zengid ruler Nur ad-Din Zengi, and afterwards Birecik became part of Nur ad-Din's direct holdings. After Nur ad-Din died in 1174, Saladin conquered the whole region. Birecik formed part of the Kurdish Ayyubid principality of Aleppo; while other towns in the principality were assigned as sub-principalities, Birecik was not and seems to have been governed directly from Aleppo by its Ayyubid governor, Az-Zahir Ghazi.
Birecik was later captured by the Mamluks under Baybars 1261. They repaired its castle in 1277-78 and again in 1300-01. Under the Mamluks, Birecik was one of the most important fortified garrisons in the region. A post route ran directly between Birecik and Aleppo. There was little traffic between Birecik and Rum Kale, another important stronghold located a bit to the north. Like Rum Kale, Birecik was not directly located on the frontier itself, but its value to the Mamluks was as a strong fallback position in case their border territories fell to the Mongols. Birecik wasn't very important commercially until the end of the 1300s, when some commercial traffic between Aleppo and Upper Mesopotamia began to follow the Birecik-Urfa route. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Dulkadirid leader Sevli Beg in 1390.
In 1401, however, Timur crossed the Euphrates at Birecik on his way from Damascus to Malatya. The Mamluk commander of Birecik's castle submitted to Timur's forces, and it appeared that the town would be spared, but Timur left a contingent of about 3,000 troops in Birecik and they ended up looting the town and castle before leaving to rejoin Timur. Birecik gained in importance during the 1400s as the preferred route connecting Aleppo and Upper Mesopotamia shifted towards the Birecik-Urfa route instead of the Mardin-Ra's al-'Ayn route that had been preferred previously. Birecik was unsuccessfully put under siege in 1420 by the Ak Koyunlu leader Kara Yusuf. Again in 1472, the Ak Koyunlu leader Uzun Hasan attacked Birecik unsuccessfully, causing damage to the city walls. The Mamluk sultan, Qaitbay, later came to inspect the damage and ordered significant rebuilding of the walls.