Acala
' or Achala, also known as ' or ', is a wrathful deity and dharmapala prominent in Vajrayana Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism.
Originally a minor deity described as a messenger or acolyte of the buddha Vairocana, Acala later rose to prominence as an object of veneration in his own right as a remover of obstacles and destroyer of evil, eventually becoming seen as the wrathful manifestation of either Vairocana, the Buddha Akṣobhya, or the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. In later texts, he is also called ' or ', the names by which he is more commonly known in countries like Nepal and Tibet.
In East Asian esoteric Buddhism, Acala is classed among the Wisdom Kings and is preeminent among the five Wisdom Kings of the Womb Realm. Accordingly, he occupies an important hierarchical position in the Mandala of the Two Realms. In China, he is known as ', while in Japan, he is called Fudō Myōō, the on'yomi reading of his Chinese name. Acala is one of the especially important and well-known divinities in Japanese Buddhism, being especially venerated in the Shingon, Tendai, Zen, and Nichiren sects, as well as in Shugendō.
Acala has been worshiped throughout the Middle Ages and into modern times in Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan, where sculptural and pictorial representations of him are most often found.
Origins and development
Acala first appears in the , where he is described as a servant or messenger of the buddha Vairocana:The first from the west in the northern quadrant is the acolyte Acala. In his left hand he grasps a noose and in his right hand he holds a sword. He is seated in the half-lotus position.
More well-known, however, is the following passage from the which refers to Acala as one of the deities of the Womb Realm Mandala:
The deity was apparently popular in India during the 8th-9th centuries as evident by the fact that six of the Sanskrit texts translated by the esoteric master Amoghavajra into Chinese are devoted entirely to him. Indeed, Acala's rise to a more prominent position in the Esoteric pantheon in East Asian Buddhism may be credited in part to the writings of Amoghavajra and his teacher Vajrabodhi.
[File:Arya Achala Tibet 12th century, Kadam Lineage Collection of Shelley & Donald Rubin (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|380x380px|12th century Tibetan (Kadampa school) painting of Acala stepping on Vighnarāja, the "Lord of Obstacles"]
While some scholars have put forward the theory that Acala originated from the Hindu god Shiva, particularly his attributes of destruction and reincarnation, Bernard Faure suggested the wrathful esoteric deity Trailokyavijaya, the Vedic religion|Vedic] fire god Agni, and the guardian deity Vajrapani to be other, more likely prototypes for Acala. He notes: "one could theoretically locate Acala's origins in a generic, but only in the sense that all Tantric deities can in one way or another be traced back to." Faure compares Acala to Vajrapani in that both were originally minor deities who eventually came to occupy important places in the Buddhist pantheon.
Acala is said to be a powerful deity who protects the faithful by burning away all impediments and defilements, thus aiding them towards enlightenment. In a commentary on the Mahāvairocana Tantra by Yi Xing, he is said to have manifested in the world following Vairocana's vow to save all beings, and that his primary function is to remove obstacles to enlightenment. Indeed, the tantra instructs the ritual practitioner to recite Acala's mantras or to visualize himself as Acala in order to remove obstacles.
From a humble acolyte, Acala evolved into a powerful demon-subduing deity. In later texts such as the, Acala - under the name or - is portrayed as the "frightener of gods, titans, and men, the destroyer of the strength of demons" who slays ghosts and evil spirits with his fierce anger. In the Sādhanamālā, the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Kandarpa - described as "wicked" beings who subject humanity to endless rebirth - are said to be terrified of Acala because he carries a rope to bind them.
File:The Five Wisdom Kings.jpg|thumb|The five Wisdom Kings of Shingon Buddhism: Acala, Trailokyavijaya, Amṛtakuṇḍalin, Yamāntaka, and Vajrayakṣa |267x267px
In Tibetan Buddhism, Acala or Miyowa is considered as belonging to the , one of the Five Buddha Families presided over by the buddha Akṣobhya and may even be regarded, along with the other deities of the kula, as an aspect or emanation of the latter. He is thus sometimes depicted in South Asian art wearing a crown with an effigy of Akṣobhya. In Nepal, Acala may also be identified as a manifestation of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. He has a consort named Viśvavajrī in both the Nepalese and Tibetan traditions, with whom he is at times depicted in yab-yum union.
By contrast, the theory, based on Amoghavajra's writings and prevalent in Japanese esoteric Buddhism, interprets Acala as an incarnation of Vairocana. In this system, the five chief vidyārājas or Wisdom Kings, of which Acala is one, are interpreted as the wrathful manifestations of the Five Great Buddhas, who appear both as gentle bodhisattvas to teach the Dharma and also as fierce wrathful deities to subdue and convert hardened nonbelievers. Under this conceptualization, vidyārājas are ranked superior to dharmapalas, a different class of guardian deities. However, this interpretation, while common in Japan, is not necessarily universal: in Nichiren-shū, for instance, Acala and Rāgarāja, the two vidyārājas who commonly feature in the mandalas inscribed by Nichiren, are seen as protective deities who respectively embody the two tenets of doctrine: "life and death are precisely nirvana" and "worldly passions are precisely enlightenment ".
Iconography
The 's description of Acala is a good summary of the deity's depiction in South Asian Buddhist art.In Nepalese and Tibetan art, Acala is usually shown either kneeling on his left knee or standing astride, bearing a noose or lasso and an upraised sword. Some depictions portray him trampling on the elephant-headed Vighnarāja, signifying his role as the destroyer of impediments to enlightenment. He may also be shown wearing a tiger skin, with snakes coiled around his arms and body.
File:Fudo Myoo Kodo Toji.jpg|thumb|325x325px|Statue of Acala in the Lecture Hall of Tō-ji in Kyoto
By contrast, portrayals of Acala in Japan generally tend to conform to the description given in the Amoghapāśakalparāja Sūtra and the Mahāvairocana Tantra: holding a lasso and a sword while sitting or standing on a rock or a pile of hewn stones, with his braided hair hanging from the left of his head. He may also be depicted with a lotus flower - a symbol of enlightenment - on his head. Unlike the South Asian Acala, whose striding posture conveys movement and dynamism, the Japanese Fudō sits or stands erect, suggesting motionlessness and rigidity. The sword he wields may or may not be flaming and is sometimes described generically as a "jeweled sword" or "vajra sword", which is descriptive of the fact that the sword's pommel is in the shape of the talon-like vajra. It may also be referred to as a "three-pronged vajra sword". In some cases, he is seen holding the "Kurikara sword", a sword with the dragon king Kurikara coiled around it. The flaming nimbus or halo behind Acala is commonly known in Japanese as the "Garuda flame" after the mythical fire-breathing bird from Indian mythology.
There are two main variations in the iconography of Acala / Fudō in Japan. The first type shows him with wide open, glaring eyes, straight hair braided in rows and two fangs pointed in the same direction; a lotus flower rests above his head. The second type, by contrast, portrays Acala with curly hair, one eye wide open and/or looking upwards, with the other narrowed and/or looking downwards, an iconographic trait known as the , "heaven-and-earth eyes". Similarly, one of his fangs is now shown as pointing up, with the other pointing down. In place of the lotus flower, images of this type may sport seven topknots.
Although the squinting left eye and inverted fangs of the second type ultimately derives from the description of Acala given in the and Yi Xing's commentary on the text, these attributes were mostly absent in Chinese and earlier Japanese icons.
Acala's mismatched eyes and fangs were allegorically interpreted to signify both the duality and nonduality of his nature : the upward fang for instance was interpreted as symbolizing the process of elevation towards enlightenment, with the downward fang symbolizing the descent of enlightened beings into the world to teach sentient beings. The two fangs also symbolize the realms of buddhas and sentient beings, yin and yang, and male and female, with the nonduality of these two polar opposites being expressed by Acala's tightly closed lips.
File:Yellow-Fudo-manshu.jpg|thumb|12th century painting of Yellow Acala in Manshu-in in Kyoto, based on an image kept at Mii-dera in Shiga Prefecture
Acala is commonly shown as having either black or blue skin, though he may be at times portrayed in other colors. In Tibet, for instance, a variant of the kneeling Acala depiction shows him as being white in hue "like sunrise on a snow mountain reflecting many rays of light". In Japan, some images may depict Acala sporting a red or yellow complexion. The most famous example of the portrayal is a painting kept at Myōō-in on Mount Kōya traditionally attributed to the Heian period Tendai monk Enchin. Legend claims that Enchin, inspired by a vision of Acala, painted the image using his own blood, though recent analysis suggests that the image may have been actually created much later, during the Kamakura period. The most well-known image of the type, meanwhile, is enshrined in Mii-dera at the foot of Mount Hiei in Shiga Prefecture and is said to have been based on another vision that Enchin saw while practicing austerities in 838. The original Mii-dera is traditionally only shown to esoteric masters during initiation rites and is otherwise not shown to the public, though copies of it have been made. One such copy, made in the 12th century, is kept at Manshu-in in Kyoto.
The deity is usually depicted with one head and two arms, though a few portrayals show him with multiple heads, arms or legs. In Japan, a depiction of Acala with four arms is employed in subjugation rituals and earth-placating rituals ; this four-armed form is identified in one text as "the lord of the various categories." An iconographic depiction known as the "Two-Headed Rāgarāja" shows Acala combined with the wisdom king Rāgarāja.
Acolytes
Acala is sometimes described as having a retinue of acolytes, the number of which vary between sources, usually two or eight but sometimes thirty-six or even forty-eight. These represent the elemental, untamed forces of nature that the ritual practitioner seeks to harness.The two boy servants or most commonly depicted in Japanese iconographic portrayals are Kiṃkara and Ceṭaka, who also appear as the last two of the list of Acala's eight great. Kiṃkara is depicted as white in color, with his hands joined in respect, while Ceṭaka is red-skinned and holds a vajra in his left hand and a vajra staff in his right hand. The two are said to symbolize both Dharma-essence and ignorance, respectively, and is held to be in charge of good and evil.
File:Eight Attendants I Kongobuji.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Sculpture of four of Acala's eight acolytes by Unkei. From left: Ceṭaka, Kiṃkara, Matijvala, and Matisādhu.
Kiṃkara and Ceṭaka are also sometimes interpreted as transformations or emanations of Acala himself. In a sense, they reflect Acala's original characterization as an attendant of Vairocana; indeed, their servile nature is reflected in their names and their topknots, the mark of banished people and slaves. In other texts, they are also described as manifestations of Avalokiteśvara and Vajrapāṇi or as transformations of the dragon Kurikara, who is himself sometimes seen as one of Acala's various incarnations.
Two other notable are Matijvala and Matisādhu, the first two of Acala's eight great acolytes. Matijvala is depicted as white in color and holds a three-pronged vajra in his right hand and a lotus topped with a moon disk on his left, while Matisādhu is red and holds a trident in his right hand and a wish-fulfilling jewel on his left. The eight acolytes as a whole symbolize the eight directions, with Matijvala and Matisādhu representing east and south, respectively.
Texts
As noted above, Acala appears in the and the. As Caṇḍaroṣaṇa or Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa, he is the primary deity of the and is described in the.The Japanese esoteric Buddhist tradition and Shugendō also make use of the following apocryphal sutras on Acala:
- Sūtra of the Great Wrathful King Āryācala's Secret Dhāraṇī
- Āryācala Sūtra
- ''Sūtra on Reverencing the Secret Dhāraṇī of Āryācala''
Bīja and mantra
The bīja or seed syllables used to represent Acala in Japanese Buddhism are ' and ', the latter being a combination of the two final in his mantra: . Hāṃ is sometimes confounded with the similar-looking , prompting some writers to mistakenly identify Acala with other deities. The syllables are written using the Siddham script and is conventionally read as and .Three mantras of Acala are considered to be the standard in Japan. The most widely known one, derived from the Mahāvairocana Tantra and popularly known as the "Mantra of Compassionate Help", goes as follows:
| Sanskrit | Shingon pronunciation | Tendai pronunciation | English translation |
| Homage to the all-encompassing Vajras! O violent one of great wrath, destroy! |
The "Short Mantra" of Acala - also found in the - is as follows:
| Sanskrit | Shingon pronunciation | Tendai pronunciation | English translation |
| Homage to the all-encompassing Vajras! |
The longest of the three is the "Great Mantra" of Acala, also known as the "Fire Realm Mantra" :
| Sanskrit | Shingon pronunciation | Tendai pronunciation | English translation |
| Homage to all Tathāgatas, the omnipresent doors, who are in all directions! O violent one of great wrath! Root out, root out every obstacle!. |
Another mantra associated with the deity is, found in the. The text describes it as the "king of mantras" that dispels all evil and grants "whatever the follower of Mantrayāna desires".
Worship
Japan
, was never popular in Indian, Tibetan or even Chinese Buddhism, but in Japan it became the object of a flourishing cult with esoteric overtones.The cult of Acala was first brought to Japan by the esoteric master Kūkai, the founder of the Shingon school, and his successors, where it developed as part of the growing popularity of rituals for the protection of the state. While Acala was at first simply regarded as the primus inter pares among the five wisdom kings, he gradually became a focus of worship in his own right, subsuming characteristics of the other four vidyarājas, and became installed as the main deity at many temples and outdoor shrines.
Acala, as a powerful vanquisher of evil, was regarded both as a protector of the imperial court and the nation as a whole and the personal guardian of ritual practitioners. Many eminent Buddhist priests like Kūkai, Kakuban, Ennin, Enchin, and Sōō worshiped Acala as their patron deity, and stories of how he miraculously rescued his devotees in times of danger were widely circulated.
At temples dedicated to Acala, priests perform the Fudō-hō, or ritual service to enlist the deity's power of purification to benefit the faithful. This rite routinely involves the use of the Homa as a purification tool.
Lay persons or monks in gear who go into rigorous training outdoors in the mountains often pray to small Acala statues or portable talismans that serve as his. This element of yamabushi training, known as Shugendō, predates the introduction of Acala to Japan. At this time, figures such as Zaō Gongen, who appeared before the sect's founder, En no Gyōja, or Vairocana, were commonly worshiped. Once Acala was added to list of deities typically enshrined by the yamabushi monks, his images were either portable, or installed in . These statues would often be placed near waterfalls, deep in the mountains and in caves.
The daimyo Takeda Shingen is known to have taken Fudō Myōō as his patron, and has commissioned a statue of Fudō that is supposedly modelled after his face.
Acala also tops the list of Thirteen Buddhas. Thus Shingon Buddhist mourners assign Fudō to the first seven days of service. The first week is an important observance, but perhaps not as much as the observance of "seven times seven days" signifying the end of the "intermediate state".
Literature on Shingon Buddhist ritual will explain that Sanskrit "seed syllables", mantras and mudras are attendant to each of the Buddhas for each observance period. But the scholarly consensus seems to be that invocation of the "Thirteen Buddhas" had evolved later, around the 14th century and became widespread by the following century, so it is doubtful that this practice was part of Kūkai's original teachings.
China
Budong Mingwang worship in China was first introduced into China during the Tang dynasty after the translation of esoteric tantras associated with him by monks such as Amoghavajra and Vajrabodhi. Iconography of Acala has been depicted in temples and grottoes from the Tang through to contemporaneous times, usually as part of a set depicting the Eight Wisdom Kings or Ten Wisdom Kings. He has also commonly been depicted in Shuilu ritual paintings, which are a style of traditional Chinese painting depicting figures in Buddhist cosmology that are used during the eponymous Chinese Buddhist Shuilu Fahui ceremony where these figures are invoked.In modern times, he continues to be regularly invoked during Chinese Buddhist rituals with esoteric elements, such as the Shuilu Fahui ceremony, along with the other Wisdom Kings where they are given offerings and intreated to expel evil from the ritual platform. He is also revered as one of the eight Buddhist guardians of the Chinese zodiac and specifically considered to be the protector of those born in the year of the Rooster.
In popular culture
- Gary Snyder's 1969 poem Smokey the Bear Sutra portrays Smokey Bear as an incarnation of Vairocana in a similar vein as Acala. Indeed, Acala's Mantra of Compassionate Help is presented in the text as Smokey's "great mantra."
- Sailor Mars from the Sailor Moon series invokes Acala through the Sanskrit chant of the Mantra of Compassionate Help during her "Fire Soul Bird" attack. Acala is flashed multiple times as a shadowed figure in flames, consistent with Japanese iconography, and in line with Sailor Mars's element of fire.