Zubarah
Zubarah, also referred to as Al Zubarah or Az Zubarah, is a ruined, ancient town located on the northwestern coast of the Qatar peninsula in the Al Shamal municipality, about from the capital Doha. It was founded by the Bani Utbah tribal confederation who migrated from Kuwait in the mid-eighteenth century. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013.
It was once a successful center of global trade and pearl fishing positioned midway between the Strait of Hormuz and the west arm of the Persian Gulf. It is one of the most extensive and best-preserved examples of an 18th–19th century settlement in the region. The layout and urban fabric of the settlement have been preserved in a manner unlike any other settlements in the Persian Gulf, providing insight into the urban life, spatial organization, and the social and economic history of the Persian Gulf before the discovery of oil and gas in the 20th century.
Covering an area of around 400 hectares, Zubarah is Qatar's most substantial archaeological site. The site comprises the fortified town with a later inner and an earlier outer wall, a harbour, a sea canal, two screening walls, Qal'at Murair, and the more recent Al Zubara Fort.
Etymology
The most widely accepted etymology of Zubarah links it the Arabic term for an elevated sand mound or small hill, a definition supported by the site's natural topography. The original settlement was established upon a raised area overlooking the sea, a feature that would have afforded both strategic advantage and visibility along the coastline. This interpretation is consistent with the Arabic usage of terms such as zuba, which denotes high ground.History
Early history
During the early Islamic period, trade and commerce boomed in northern Qatar. Settlements began to appear on the coast, primarily between the towns of Zubarah and Umm Al Maa. A village dating back to the early Islamic period was discovered near the town.Between September 1627 and April 1628, a Portuguese naval squadron led by D. Goncalo da Silveira set several neighboring coastal villages ablaze. Zubarah's settlement and growth during this period is attributed to the dislodging of people from these adjacent settlements.
Settlement
The origins of Zubarah are the subject of some historical dispute. The 1986 history book Qatar's Memorial claimed that a functioning, self-governing settlement existed in the area prior to the arrival of the Bani Utbah tribal confederation. It supported this claim by invoking two purported historical documents; however, they were later exposed as forgeries produced by Qatari authorities amid a territorial dispute with Bahrain over sovereignty of the site.By contrast, the more widely accepted narrative places the foundation and rise of Zubarah within the broader context of the Bani Utbah migration. Sometime before 1698, the Bani Utbah clans, comprising families from the Anaza tribe including the Al Sabah, Al Khalifa, and Al Jalahma, migrated from the Najd region of central Arabia in response to prolonged drought. Their migration path took them through Al Aflaj, Qatif, and Al Ahsa, eventually reaching Freiha in northwestern Qatar, near the future site of Zubarah.
Upon settling in Freiha, the Utub formed an alliance with local Qatari tribes, most notably the Al-Maadeed, a powerful clan affiliated with Bani Khalid, as well as the Al Sulaim. This coalition became known as the Bani Utbah, which later expanded to include other Najdi and Banu Tamim families. They established Freiha as a fortified coastal hub with access to maritime trade routes and pearling waters. After successive military skirmishes with the dominant Al Musallam tribe, who were a Bani Khalid tribe under nominal Ottoman support, the Bani Utbah tribes were forced to depart to Iraq in 1716, followed by Kuwait.
In the mid-18th century, likely during the 1760s, several tribes of the Bani Utbah, including factions of the Al Bin Ali, Al-Maadeed and Al Jalahmah, returned to Qatar's northern coast and began to settle in Zubarah, approximately from their earlier settlement at Freiha. By this time, the area had grown into a small but active coastal village. Its existence as a recognized port is attested in a 1766 manuscript of Lamʿ al-Shihāb fī Sīrat Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, which records that Sheikh Sulayman Al Humaid of the Bani Khalid issued an ultimatum forbidding trade between Uyayna and coastal settlements under his control, including Zubarah. The passage suggests that by the mid-18th century, Zubarah was already recognized as a port of economic significance within Bani Khalid territory.
Shortly thereafter, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa of the Al Khalifa family migrated from Kuwait and was invited by the inhabitants of Zubarah, comprising various Bani Utbah tribes such as the Al Bin Ali and Al Jalahimah, to settle in the town. At the time, nearby Al Huwaila as well as several other northern settlements remained under the authority of the Al Musallam clan. As the Al Khalifa's influence in Zubarah expanded, they faced growing resistance from the Al Musallam leadership, who sought to reassert their authority.
Initial development
As the influence of the Al Khalifa branch of the Bani Utbah expanded in Zubarah during the 1760s, tensions with the Al Musallam clan, then acting as local representatives of the Bani Khalid, began to escalate. The Al Musallam demanded tribute from the new arrivals, but Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa refused, prompting a series of skirmishes between the two factions. In response to the growing threat, Al Khalifa initiated the construction of a fortified settlement. Completed by 1768, the structure became known as Qal'at Murair, a coastal stronghold with defensive walls, watchtowers, and a canal linking it to the sea. Other defensive installations, including additional forts and towers built by earlier settlers, existed throughout the area.To reinforce his political position, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa also forged alliances through intermarriage with prominent tribal families, including the Al Bin Ali and Al Bu Kuwara. Following several successive skirmishes over their refusal to pay taxes, the Al Khalifa launched a successful assault on Al Huwaila, leading to the flight of the Al Musallam leadership to Najd.
Following the expulsion of the Bani Khalid, who ruled over much of northern Qatar, the Bani Utbah focused on developing Zubarah into a major port town. With a naturally sheltered harbor and newly reinforced defenses, it soon emerged as one of the principal emporiums and pearl trading centres of the Persian Gulf. The town attracted merchants from across the region, developing extensive trade links with India, Oman, Iraq, and Kuwait. Exports such as dates and pearls passed through its harbor alongside imports of spices and metals.
The abolition of trade taxes under the Utub further stimulated commercial activity, drawing traders from other Gulf ports. The town's prosperity further increased after the Ottoman–Persian War and the subsequent Persian occupation of Basra. The disruption of commerce in southern Iraq prompted many Basran merchants and refugees to relocate to Zubarah, contributing to its rapid expansion.
Among these new arrivals was the affluent merchant Muhammad ibn Husayn ibn Rizq al-Ruzayqi and his son Ahmad, who played a major role in Zubarah's development. With the support of Khalifa bin Muhammad, who succeeded his father in 1777, the elder bin Rizq constructed a large residential complex that doubled as a commercial hub. At Ahmad's request, the scholar and jurist Uthman ibn Sanad al-Basri was invited to the town to serve as the supreme judge. In his biography, first published in 1813, ibn Sanad documented the administration and personages of Zubarah during this period, noting the arrival of other prominent figures such as the theologian Abd al-Djalil al-Tabatabai.
Also during the 1770s, merchants and residents from across Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar relocated to Zubarah in response to instability in the Gulf, including recurring attacks and outbreaks of plague. The ongoing conflict between the Bani Khalid and the rising Wahhabi movement also contributed to Zubarah's emergence as a safe and prosperous alternative. Among those born during this period of expansion was Thani bin Mohammed, founder of the House of Thani, who would later become an influential pearl trader. His commercial success earned his tribe, the Al-Maadeed, increased political influence in the town.
1783 Bani Utbah invasion of Bahrain
Tensions between Zubarah and Persian-ruled Bahrain escalated in 1782 following an incident on the island of Sitra. A servant of the Al Khalifa family named Salem had been dispatched to purchase palm trunk, ropes, and other materials. While there, he and his companions were attacked by local Shi‘a residents; Salem was killed, several others were wounded, and their belongings were looted. Survivors returned to Zubarah, prompting outrage among its leaders. Sheikh Ahmad bin Muhammad Al Khalifa, angered by the killing of his retainer, sent a formal protest to Nasr Al-Madhkur, the Persian-appointed ruler of Bahrain and Bushehr. When Nasr failed to respond seriously, the Al Khalifa used the incident as justification for retaliation.With the support of fellow Utub tribes, they launched an assault on Bahrain on 9 September 1782, plundering and destroying the town of Manama. A brief land battle ensued between the Arab tribes and Persian defenders, in which both sides suffered casualties. The people of Zubarah returned to the mainland after three days with a seized Persian gallivat that had been used to collect the annual treaty. On 1 October, the Persian governor of Shiraz, Ali Murad Khan, ordered Nasr Al-Madhkur to launch a full-scale counterattack against Zubarah and sent him reinforcements from the Persian mainland. Approximately 2,000 Persian troops were dispatched, and by December 1782, they began preparations for a landing on the Qatari coast.
In May 1783, Nasr's fleet arrived off the coast of Qatar and began disembarking at Ras Ushayriq near Zubarah. Due to low tide, the ships were forced to anchor offshore while the army advanced overland. Zubarah was besieged for nearly a month. Mediation efforts by Rashid bin Matar, the former ruler of Julfar, led to negotiations in which the Utub offered to return goods and ships previously seized from Persian ports such as Bandar Rig and from Bahrain. However, Nasr Al-Madhkur rejected the proposal and pressed ahead with his campaign.
On a Friday in December 1783, Persian forces landed between Zubarah and Freiha and launched a final assault. They were repelled in a decisive battle by a coalition of local Qatari tribes, which included the Al Maadeed of Freiha. Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa, the nephew of Nasr Al-Madhkur, was killed in combat along with many of his soldiers. The Persian army was routed, and its remnants fled the battlefield.
Following the defeat of Nasr Al-Madhkur's forces, his sword was seized by the Al Ibn Salama branch of the Al Bin Ali tribe, who had assisted the Al Khalifa in the defense of Zubarah. The sword later came into the possession of Sheikh Sultan bin Salama, remaining with his descendants until 1915, when it was formally presented as a gift to the ruler of Qatar at the time, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani.
After the invasion, Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Khalifa assumed control of the island, expelling the Persians and installing a governor on his behalf. His primary residence, however, remained in Zubarah, while a garrison was established in Qal'at Ad-Diwan, located south of present-day Manama.
Despite the instability surrounding Zubarah after the siege of Zubarah and the conquest of Bahrain in 1783, it flourished as a trading centre and its port grew larger than that of Qatif's by 1790. Al Zubarah developed into a center of Islamic education during this century. The first almanac produced in Qatar, and one of the earliest preserved local literary works in the nation, was produced here in 1790 – the Zubarah Almanac, authored by the Maliki Sunni scholar ‘Abd al Rahman al-Zawāwī. This calendar outlined the months and days of the year, specified prayer times, and included observations on agriculture and seasonal variations.
The town came under threat from 1780 onward due to the intermittent raids launched by the Wahhabis on the Bani Khalid strongholds in nearby Al Ahsa. The Wahhabis speculated that the population of Zubarah would conspire against the regime in Al Ahsa with the help of the Bani Khalid. They also believed that its residents practiced teachings contrary to the Wahhabi doctrine and regarded the town as an important gateway to the Persian Gulf. Saudi general Sulaiman ibn Ufaysan led a raid against the town in 1787. In 1792, a massive Wahhabi force conquered Al Ahsa, forcing many refugees to flee to Zubarah. Wahhabi forces besieged Zubarah and several neighboring settlements two years later to punish them for accommodating asylum seekers. The local chieftains were allowed to continue carrying out administrative tasks but were required to pay a tax.