V2 word order
In syntax, verb-second 'word order' is a sentence structure in which the finite verb of a sentence or a clause is placed in the clause's second position, so that the verb is preceded by a single word or group of words.
Examples of V2 in English include :
- "Neither do I", " have I seen such things"
- "* learned I about animals", "* takes she a nap"
Most Germanic languages do not normally use V2 order in embedded clauses, with a few exceptions. In particular, German, Dutch, and Afrikaans revert to VF word order after a complementizer; Yiddish and Icelandic do, however, allow V2 in all declarative clauses: main, embedded, and subordinate. Kashmiri has V2 in 'declarative content clauses' but VF order in relative clauses.
Examples
The example sentences in from German illustrate the V2 principle, which allows any constituent to occupy the first position as long as the second position is occupied by the finite verb. Sentences through to have the finite verb spielten 'played' in second position, with various constituents occupying the first position: in the subject is in first position; in the object is; in the temporal modifier is in first position; and in the locative modifier is in first position.In this example, English is more straightforward to compare to a North Germanic language:
The same inversions occur regularly in the North Germanic languages, and in Dutch, for that matter,
but English uses the North Germanic word order apart from having lost the inversions in common use.
If the same example in Norwegian were translated to English with the inversions intact:
The caveat here is that in languages without grammatical case, the form with the object first can only be used unambiguously when the object is unmistakable from the subject, such as if it is a personal pronoun, or as in this example, cannot meaningfully be the subject.
In speech, such inversions are usually marked with emphasis: Apart from inversions that are obligatory in their grammatical context, such as "jeg tenker, derfor er jeg", when an inversion occurs for no other reason than emphasis, which is what opens up for possible ambiguity, the word in the emphasized position before the verb is usually also emphasized in speech.
Non-finite verbs and embedded clauses
Non-finite verbs
The V2 principle regulates the position of finite verbs only; its influence on non-finite verbs is indirect. Non-finite verbs in V2 languages appear in varying positions depending on the language. In German and Dutch, for instance, non-finite verbs appear after the object in clause final position in main clauses. Swedish and Icelandic, in contrast, position non-finite verbs after the finite verb but before the object . That is, V2 operates on only the finite verb.Embedded clauses
Germanic languages vary in the application of V2 order in embedded clauses. They fall into three groups.Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Faroese
In these languages, the word order of clauses is generally fixed in two patterns of conventionally numbered positions. Both end with positions for non-finite verb forms, objects, and, adverbials.In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. The finite verb must be in position and sentence adverbs in position. The latter include words with meanings such as 'not' and 'always'. The subject may be position, but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject is in position.
In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint is absent. After the conjunction, the subject must immediately follow; it cannot be replaced by a topical expression. Thus, the first four positions are in the fixed order conjunction, subject, sentence adverb, finite verb
The position of the sentence adverbs is important to those theorists who see them as marking the start of a large constituent within the clause. Thus the finite verb is seen as inside that constituent in embedded clauses, but outside that constituent in V2 main clauses.
Swedish
Main clause Front Finite verb Subject Sentence adverb __ Non-finite verb Object Adverbial
Embedded clause __ Conjunction Subject Sentence adverb Finite verb Non-finite verb Object Adverbial
Main clause I dag ville Lotte inte läsa tidningen
today wanted Lotte not read the newspaper
"Lotte didn't want to read the paper today."
Embedded clause att Lotte inte ville koka kaffe i dag
that Lotte not wanted brew coffee today
"that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today."
Danish
So-called Perkerdansk is an example of a variety that does not follow the above.
Norwegian
Faroese
Unlike continental Scandinavian languages, the sentence adverb may either precede or follow the finite verb in embedded clauses. A slot is inserted here for the following sentence adverb alternative.
German
In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. As with other Germanic languages, the finite verb must be in the second position. However, any non-finite forms must be in final position. The subject may be in the first position, but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject follows the finite verb.In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint does not hold. The finite verb form must be adjacent to any non-finite at the end of the clause.
German grammarians traditionally divide sentences into fields. Subordinate clauses preceding the main clause are said to be in the first field, clauses following the main clause in the final field.
The central field contains most or all of a clause, and is bounded by left bracket and right bracket positions.
In main clauses, the initial element is said to be located in the first field, the V2 finite verb form in the left bracket, and any non-finite verb forms in the right bracket.
In embedded clauses, the conjunction is said to be located in the left bracket, and the verb forms in the right bracket. In German embedded clauses, a finite verb form follows any non-finite forms.
'''German'''
Dutch and Afrikaans
V2 word order is used in main clauses; the finite verb must be in the second position. However, in subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters.Main clauses:
Dutch
This analysis suggests a close parallel between the V2 finite form in main clauses and the conjunctions in embedded clauses. Each is seen as an introduction to its clause-type, a function which some modern scholars have equated with the notion of specifier. The analysis is supported in spoken Dutch by the placement of clitic pronoun subjects. Forms such as ze cannot stand alone, unlike the full-form equivalent zij. The words to which they may be attached are those same introduction words: the V2 form in a main clause, or the conjunction in an embedded clause.
Subordinate clauses:
In Dutch subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters and are referred to as the "red": omdat ik heb gewerkt, "because I have worked": like in English, where the auxiliary verb precedes the past particle, and the "green": omdat ik gewerkt heb, where the past particle precedes the auxiliary verb, "because I worked have": like in German. In Dutch, the green word order is the most used in speech, and the red is the most used in writing, particularly in journalistic texts, but the green is also used in writing as is the red in speech. Unlike in English however adjectives and adverbs must precede the verb:
V2 in Icelandic and Yiddish
These languages freely allow V2 order in embedded clauses.Icelandic
Two word-order patterns are largely similar to continental Scandinavian. However, in main clauses an extra slot is needed for when the front position is occupied by Það. In these clauses the subject follows any sentence adverbs. In embedded clauses, sentence adverbs follow the finite verb.
In more radical contrast with other Germanic languages, a third pattern exists for embedded clauses with the conjunction followed by the V2 order: front-finite verb-subject.
Yiddish
Unlike Standard German, Yiddish normally has verb forms before Objects, and in embedded clauses has conjunction followed by V2 order.
Root clauses
One type of embedded clause with V2 following the conjunction is found throughout the Germanic languages, although it is more common in some than it is others. These are termed root clauses. They are declarative content clauses, the direct objects of so-called bridge verbs, which are understood to quote a statement. For that reason, they exhibit the V2 word order of the equivalent direct quotation.Danish
Items other than the subject are allowed to appear in front position.
Swedish
Items other than the subject are occasionally allowed to appear in front position. Generally, the statement must be one with which the speaker agrees.
This order is not possible with a statement with which the speaker does not agree.
Norwegian
German
Root clause V2 order is possible only when the conjunction dass is omitted. In such cases, formal usage also places the finite verb form into the present subjunctive if the verb form is clearly distinguishable from the indicative; if not, the past subjunctive is used.
Compare the normal embed-clause order after '''dass'''