Two-spirit

Two-spirit is a umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people who fulfill a traditional third-gender social role in their communities.
Coined in 1990 as a primarily ceremonial term promoting community recognition, in recent years more individuals have taken to self-identifying as two-spirit. Two-spirit, as a term and concept, is neither used nor accepted universally in Native American cultures. Indigenous cultures that have traditional roles for gender-nonconforming people have names in their own Indigenous languages for these people and the roles they fill in their communities.
The initial intent in coining the term was to differentiate Indigenous concepts of gender and sexuality from those of non-Native lesbians and gays and to replace the pejorative anthropological terms that were still in wide use. Although the term "two-spirit" has been controversial since its adoption, it has experienced more academic and social acceptance than the term berdache, which it was coined to replace. The government of Canada officially uses 2SLGBTQI+ as an alternative to the established acronym of LGBTQI+, sometimes shortened to 2SLGBT or a similar variant.
Early adopters stated that a two-spirit identity does not make sense outside of a Native American or First Nations cultural framework and its use by non-Natives is seen as a form of cultural appropriation.
The gender-nonconforming or third-gender ceremonial roles traditionally embodied by some Native American and Indigenous peoples in Canada that may be encompassed by modern two-spirit people vary widely, even among the Native individuals or cultures that use the term. Not all of these cultures have historically had roles for gender-variant people, and among those that do, no one Indigenous culture's gender or sexuality categories apply to all Native people.

''Two-spirit'' as a term

Etymology

The neologism two-spirit was developed over a series of five conferences, concluding in 1990 at the Third Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conference, held in Winnipeg. Credit for developing the term is usually given to several participants in the gatherings. The term was first developed and proposed in English, and later the Ojibwe translation was constructed and proposed to honor the language of the Indigenous peoples in whose territory the conference was being held.
Both the English and Ojibwe terms were coined at the 1990 conference, and are not found in the historical record. Two-spirit, in English or translated into any other language, is a general term for wider audiences, and is not intended to replace the traditional terms or concepts already in use in Indigenous cultures.
For early adopters, the term two spirit was a deliberate act to differentiate and distance themselves from non-Native gays and lesbians, as well as from non-Native terminology such as gay, lesbian, and transgender. Particularly offensive was the term berdache, which had previously been the preferred term among non-Native anthropologists to refer to Indigenous people who did not conform to standard European-American gender roles. Berdache, which means "passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute", has always been offensive to Indigenous peoples. Journalist Mary Annette Pember and others have written that conference participants were motivated by the desire to coin a new term that could take the place of the outdated and offensive anthropological term.
Two-spirited woman Michelle Cameron writes, "The term two-spirit is thus an Aboriginal-specific term of resistance to colonization and non-transferable to other cultures. There are several underlying reasons for two-spirited Aboriginals' desire to distance themselves from the mainstream queer community." German anthropologist Sabine Lang writes that for Aboriginal people, sexual orientation or gender identity is secondary to their ethnic identity. "At the core of contemporary two-spirit identities is ethnicity, an awareness of being Native American as opposed to being white or being a member of any other ethnic group".
While initially focused on ceremonial and social roles within the Indigenous community, as a pan-Indian, English-language umbrella term, for some it has come to have similar use as the terms queer or LGBTQ in encompassing lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Native peoples in North America.

Disputed origins

Primary attribution of the term two spirit, since 1990, has been ascribed to Albert McLeod, who also acknowledges the input of those who participated in the series of five conferences that culminated in the discussions at the Third Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conference in 1990. In 2021, Myra Laramee reported that she proposed the term at the 1990 gathering after the phrase came to her in a dream.
Journalist Mary Annette Pember notes that "Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term two spirit. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of the Ho-Chunk Nation, Native people such as anthropologist Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation. ". Roscoe, like his non-Native mentor Harry Hay, was involved in the gay hippie group Radical Faeries, a non-Native community that emulated Native spirituality and engaged in other forms of cultural appropriation.

Criticism of the term

Criticism of "two-spirit" centers on the term's Western origins, interpretations and influence, the lack of emphasis on Indigenous cultural traditions as maintained by tribal elders, and the potential to render tribal traditions indistinct or vanish them completely.
The terms used by tribes who have roles for gender-variant persons, both currently and historically, do not translate into any form of 'two spirit', and the Ojibwe form niizh manidoowag is also modern – a new translation from English that was chosen in 1990, after the term was coined in English.
With 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States alone, some critics say use of the term two-spirit risks erasing traditional terms specific to different, unique communities, that already have their own terminology for these individuals in their Indigenous languages. Since historically, those recorded as gender-variant individuals are often mentioned in the context of having held spiritual, ceremonial roles, the term two spirit – which may have nothing to do with those beliefs and ceremonies – can create a disconnection from, and forgetting of, the actual cultural beliefs and ceremonies.
At the series of conferences where the term was gradually adopted, some Native attendees expressed concern that reservation communities would scorn the idea of two-spirit and never adopt the term.
Additional issues with two-spirit that others have voiced is that they see it as a capitulation to urbanization and loss of culture that, while initially intended to help people reconnect with the spiritual dimension of these roles, was not working out the way it had been intended. In 2009, writing for the Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, Kylan Mattias de Vries wrote:

With the urbanization and assimilation of Native peoples, individuals began utilizing Western terms, concepts, and identities, such as gay, lesbian, transgender, and intersex. These terms separated Native cultural identity from sexuality and gender identity, furthering a disconnect felt by many Native American/First Nations peoples in negotiating the boundaries of life between two worlds. The term two-spirited was created to reconnect one's gender or sexual identity with her or his Native identity and culture. ...
Some Native Americans/First Nations people that hold to more traditional religious and cultural values view two-spirit as a cultural and social term, rather than one with any religious or spiritual meaning. ... Since historically, many "berdache/two-spirit" individuals held religious or spiritual roles, the term two spirit creates a disconnection from the past. The terms used by other tribes currently and historically do not translate directly into the English form of two spirit or the Ojibwe form of niizh manidoowag.

Perception of Western gender binary

The binary nature of two-spirit, or the idea of having two spirits in one body, is not a theme found in the traditional gender roles for Native people, and concerns about this misrepresentation have been voiced since the 1990 conference where the term was adopted. Traditional Native Americans asked about the concept rejected the "Western" gender binary implications of the term "Two Spirit", such as implying that Natives believe these individuals are "both male and female".
Writing on possible misinterpretations from English speakers who hold binary gender views, Kylan Mattias de Vries says in Encyclopedia of Gender and Society: Volume 2, an academic textbook:

Traditional Indigenous terms

While some have found two-spirit a useful tool for intertribal organizing, "the concept and word two-spirit has no traditional cultural significance". Not all tribes have ceremonial roles for these people, and the tribes that do usually use names in their own languages.
With over 500 surviving Native American cultures, attitudes about sex and gender can be diverse. Even with the modern adoption of pan-Indian terms like two-spirit, and the creation of a modern pan-Indian community around this naming, not all cultures will perceive gender-nonconforming members of their communities the same way, or welcome a pan-Indian term to replace the terms already in use by their cultures. Additionally, not all contemporary Indigenous communities are supportive of their gender-variant and non-heterosexual people now. In these communities, those looking for two-spirit community have sometimes faced oppression and rejection. While existing terminology in many nations shows historical acknowledgement of differing sexual orientations and gender expressions, members of some of these nations have also said that while variance was accepted, they never had separate or defined roles for these members of the community. Among the Indigenous communities that traditionally have roles for two-spirit people, specific terms in their own languages are used for the social and spiritual roles these individuals fulfill. The following list is not comprehensive.

Language	Term	Literal translation	Description
Aleut	tayagigux	"Woman transformed into a man"
Aleut	ayagigux	"Man transformed into a woman"
Blackfoot	ninauh-oskitsi-pahpyaki	"Manly-hearted-woman"	This term has a wide variety of meanings ranging from women who performed the roles of men, dressed as men, took female partners, or who participated in activities such as war.
Blackfoot	ááwowáakii	"A male homosexual"
Blackfoot	a'yai-kik-ahsi	"Acts like a woman"	There are historical accounts of individuals who engaged in homosexual relationships, or who were born as men but lived their lives as women, possibly for religious or social reasons. These individuals were viewed in a wide variety of ways, from being revered spiritual leaders, brave warriors and artisans, to targets of ridicule.
Cheyenne			A cross-gender or third-gender person, typically a male-bodied person who takes on the roles and duties of a woman. have had specialized roles within Cheyenne society, including officiating during the Scalp Dance, organizing marriages, acting as messengers between lovers, and accompanying men to war.
Cree		"A woman who dresses as a man"
Cree		"A man who dresses as a woman"
Cree		"A woman dressed/living/accepted as a man" or "someone who fights everyone to prove they are the toughest"
Cree		"A man dressed/living/accepted as a woman"	Possibly not a respectful term. Others have suggested it is a third-gender designation, applied to both male-bodied and female-bodied people.
Cree		"One who acts/lives as a man"
Cree		"One who acts/lives as a woman"
Crow	batée		A word that describes both trans women and homosexual males.
Lakota		"wants to be like a woman"	Male-bodied people who in some cases have adopted the clothing, work, and mannerisms usually considered feminine in Lakota culture. In contemporary Lakota culture, the term is most commonly associated with simply being gay. Both historically and in modern culture, usually winkte are homosexual. Most historical accounts, notably those by other Lakota, see the winkte as regular members of the community, and neither marginalized for their status, nor seen as exceptional. Other writings, usually historical accounts by anthropologists, hold the winkte as sacred, occupying a liminal, third gender role and fulfilling ceremonial roles that can not be filled by either men or women. In contemporary Lakota communities, attitudes towards the winkte vary from accepting to homophobic.
Navajo	or	"One who is transformed" or "one who changes"	In traditional Navajo culture, nádleeh are male-bodied individuals described by those in their communities as "effeminate male", or as "half woman, half man". A 2009 documentary about the tragic murder of nádleeh Fred Martinez, entitled, Two Spirits, contributed to awareness of these terms and cultures. A Navajo gender spectrum that has been described is that of four genders: feminine woman, masculine woman, feminine man, masculine man.
Ojibwe	ininiikaazo	"Women who functioned as men" or "one who endeavors to be like a man"	According to academic Anton Treuer, sex, gender, and work were often related in Ojibwe culture, but variation was accepted. Ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo lived and worked as their gender, not their sex, and could take spouses of their own sex. Both ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo were considered spiritually strong and honored ceremonially.
Ojibwe	ikwekaazo	"Men who chose to function as women" / "one who endeavors to be like a woman".	According to academic Anton Treuer, sex, gender, and work were often related in Ojibwe culture, but variation was accepted. Ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo lived and worked as their gender, not their sex, and could take spouses of their own sex. Both ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo were considered spiritually strong and honored ceremonially.
Ojibwe	agokwe or agokwa	"man-woman"	Male-assigned. The Ojibwe word agokwe was used by John Tanner to describe gender-nonconforming Ojibwe warrior Ozaawindib.
Ojibwe	Okitcitakwe	"warrior woman"	Female-assigned
Warao		"twisted women"
Zuni			Men who at times may also take on the social and ceremonial roles performed by women in their culture. Accounts from the 1800s note that lhamana, while dressed in "female attire", were often hired for work that required "strength and endurance", while also excelling in traditional arts and crafts such as pottery and weaving. Notable lhamana We'wha, lived in both traditional female and male social and ceremonial roles at various points in their life, and was a respected community leader and cultural ambassador.