Turkmen alphabet

The Turkmen alphabet refers to variants of the Latin alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet, or Arabic alphabet used for writing of the Turkmen language.
The modified variant of the Latin alphabet currently has an official status in Turkmenistan.
For centuries, literary Turkic tradition in Central Asia revolved around the Arabic alphabet. At the start of the 20th century, when local literary conventions were to match colloquial variants of Turkic languages, and Turkmen-proper started to be written, it continued to use the Arabic script. In the 1920s, in Soviet Turkmenistan, issues and shortcomings of the Arabic alphabet for accurately representing Turkmen were identified and the orthography was refined. But by 1928, due to state-policy, this orthography was discarded and the Latin script was adopted. In 1940, the Russian influence in Soviet Turkmenistan prompted a switch to a Cyrillic alphabet and a Turkmen Cyrillic alphabet was created. When Turkmenistan became independent in 1991, President Saparmurat Niyazov immediately instigated a return to the Latin script. When it was reintroduced in 1993, it was supposed to use some unusual letters, such as the pound, dollar, yen and cent signs, but these were replaced by more conventional letter symbols in 1999.
Turkmen is still often written with a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet in other countries where the language is spoken and where the Arabic script is dominant.

Evolution

In the historic Turkmen SSR Arabic orthography, a small uppercase Hamza was used for indicating front vowels when vowel sounds can't be perceived from other vowels or consonants in a word, very similar to the use of Hamza in Kazakh Arabic alphabet. In Turkmen, there are 9 vowels, 8 of which formed 4 pairs in the Turkmen SSR Arabic orthography. Below are these pairs, the back vowel and its corresponding front vowel:

A a / Ä ä
O o / Ö ö
U u / Ü ü
Y y / I i
E e

If a word contains front vowels, a small uppercase Hamza was used; except if the word also contained either the vowel E e, or the consonants for or . As per Turkmen vowel harmony rules, these three letters are only accompanied with front vowels, thus the small uppercase Hamza will be redundant and is not written.

Arabic script

In Turkmenistan, Turkmen was primarily written in the Arabic script prior to latinisation in the Soviet Union. There were earlier attempts at standardisation of the Turkmen Arabic script, with rules and vowel conventions similar to those used by other Turkic languages of Russian Turkistan, such as Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek; however, all Arabic-based orthographies were eventually banned by Soviet authorities in 1929.
In Iran and Afghanistan, the Turkmen Arabic script remains in use. In Iran, specifically, the development of a modern standardized Perso-Arabic alphabet for Turkmen has been ongoing for the past four decades. It is based on the original Persian alphabet with slight modifications. It was first developed by Dr. Hamid Notqi and published in the Iranian-Azerbaijani Varlyq magazine. Since then, this system has been adopted by Iranian-Turkmens, and has been used for the publication of Turkmen-language publications such as Yaprak and Sahra, as well as by the Turkish State Media TRT. In 2010, the Iranian-Turkmen literaturist and linguist Mahmyt Atagazly compiled the alphabet in a booklet called "Guideline for Writing Turkmen Correctly". In this booklet, not only has Atagazly presented the alphabet, he has also reviewed the phonology of the Turkmen language and the rules of writing Turkmen to reflect this phonology accurately.

Vowels

In the Turkmen Arabic alphabet, 9 vowels are defined.

Vowel Harmony

Like other Turkic languages, Turkmen has a system of vowel harmony. Turkmen's system of vowel harmony is primarily a front/back system. This means that all vowels in a word must be ones that are pronounced either at the front or at the back of the mouth. In Turkmen there are two suffixes that make a plural: ـلِر ler after front vowels, and ـلار lar after back vowels. The same variety of options for suffixes exist across the board in Turkmen. Here is how vowel harmony works, in an example of a word in which the vowels are all frontal:

The word for dog is ایت it, and the pluralized form is ایتلِر itler.
The word for four is دؤرت dört, and the word for all four of us is دؤردیمیز dördimiz.

And below are examples for back vowels:

The word for mountain is داغ dag; thus, the word for mountains is داغلار daglar.

Another sort of vowel harmony that exists in Turkmen is the system in which each syllable is required to have one, and only one vowel. This rule even applies to loanwords, who have their pronunciation altered in order to match this rule.

Vowel rounding

In Turkmen there is a rule whereby words do not end in rounded vowels.
The round vowels اوْ o and اؤ ö can only exist in the first syllable. Even if they are heard in pronunciation in other syllables, they are written as ـا a and ــِـ ە e, respectively. Likewise, the round vowels اوُ u and اۆ ü can only exist in the first and second syllables.
Compound words, as well as loanwords, are exceptions to these rules.

Vowel orthography

Of the two forms of the vowels above, some of them happen to have the letter ا in one of their forms, but not the other. These vowels, if at the beginning of the word, will universally be accompanied with the alif, but if they happen to be in the middle or end of a word, then the alif will be dropped. E.g., the vowel corresponding to the Latin letter u is written as اوُ in initial positions. The examples below for words including this vowel are as follows:

The word for flour is اوُن un.
The word for wheat is بوُغدای bugdaý.

In Turkmen there are two types of syllables: open-ended syllables and close-ended syllables. Open-ended syllables are ones that end in a vowel, i.e. they are in a V or cV form. Close-ended syllables are those that end in a consonant, i.e. they are in a Vc or cVc form. This generally does not matter, with the exception of the vowel that represents the same sound as the Latin letter e. If the syllable is close-ended, the diacritic form of the vowel ــِـ is used. But if the syllable is open-ended, the ە form is used. Below are examples for the two:

The word dessan is broken down to two close-ended syllables, des-san. Thus, the diacritic form of the vowel e is used, and the word is written in the Turkmen Arabic alphabet as دِسسان. Similar to Persian and Arabic orthographies, diacritics are standardly omitted from writing.
The word erteki is broken down to three syllables: er-te-ki, with two open-ended syllables. The e vowel in the second syllable is written as ە, and thus, the word is spelt ارتەکی .

There is one exception to this rule, and that is the suffix -leri, which indicates that a noun is plural and in an objective or possessive case. Despite the suffix consisting of an open-ended syllable, it is written as ـلری.
The Latin letter a is generally written as آ / ـا. This is universally true for words of Turkmen origin. However, in Persian or Arabic loanwords, which have been incorporated in the Turkmen language for centuries and already have a proper and familiar spelling, retain their original spelling. In Persian or Arabic, the same sound can be represented either by the diacritic ــَـ, or by the letter ع, either with diacritic as عَـ or as عا.

Consonants

While Turkmen Latin alphabet has 9 vowels and 21 consonants, the Turkmen Arabic alphabet has 32 consonants, as there are sounds that are represented by more than one consonant. The two letters, نگ are treated as one letter, as they are pronounced as a single sound.

No.	Letter	Latin equivalent	IPA	Example	Latin spelling	Meaning
1	ب	B b		باش	baş	'head'
2	پ	P p		پالتا	palta	'ax'
3	ت	T t		تانا	tana	'calf'
4	ث	S s		ثمر	semer	'benefit'
5	ج	J j		آجیٛ	ajy	'bitter'
6	چ	Ç ç		چکیچ	çekiç	'hammer'
7	ح	H h		حو‌ْراز	horaz	'rooster'
8	خ	H h		خان	han	'khan'
9	د	D d		داغ	dag	'mountain'
10	ذ	Z z		ذلیل	zelil	'humiliated'
11	ر	R r		بارماق	barmak	'finger'
12	ز	Z z		آز	az	'a little'
13	ژ	Ž ž		آژدار	aždar	'dragon'
14	س	S s		سن	sen	'thou, you '
15	ش	Ş ş		آشاق	aşak	'down'
16	ص	S s		صنم	Senem	'Senem'
17	ض	Z z		ضرر	zerer	'loss'
18	ط	T t		خط	hat	'line; letter'
19	ظ	Z z		ظالم	zalym	'tyrant'
20	ع			عزیز	eziz	'dear'
21	غ	G g		باغ	bag	'garden'
22	ف	F f		نفس	nefes	'breath'
23	ق	G g		قارا	gara	'black'
23	ق	K k		قاقا	kaka	'father'
24	ك / ک	K k		کر	ker	'deaf'
25	گ	G g		گل	gel	'come!'
26	ل	L l		لال	lal	'mute'
27	م	M m		من	men	'I, me'
28	ن	N n		نار	nar	'pomegranate'
29	نگ	Ň ň		منگ	meň	' mole'
30	و	W w		آو	aw	'hunt'
31	ه / هـ	H h		هانی	hany	'Where is ?'
32	ی	Ý ý		یاز	ýaz	'spring'