Tughril I
Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il, better known as Tughril, was a Turkoman chieftain, who founded the Seljuk Empire, ruling from 1037 to 1063.
Tughril united many Turkoman warriors of the Central Asian steppes into a confederacy of tribes and led them in conquest of Khorasan and eastern Persia. He would later establish the Seljuk Sultanate after conquering Persia and taking the Abbasid capital of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055. Tughril relegated the Abbasid Caliphs to state figureheads and took command of the caliphate's armies in military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids in an effort to expand his empire's borders and unite the Islamic world.
After the deaths of Seljuk leaders such as Israil and Mikail, the Seljuks submitted to the authority of Tughril Bey and began expanding their territories under the leadership of his brother, Chaghri Beg. In 1037, Tughril was declared sultan by the prominent figures of the Seljuk dynasty, and a sermon was delivered in his name. Following the death of Mahmud of Ghazni and the accession of Sultan Masʽud, the Seljuks, under Tughril’s leadership, engaged in several phases of warfare with the Ghaznavids. As a result, the Seljuks emerged as a new power in the Middle East after their decisive victory in the Battle of Dandanqan in 1040, which brought an end to Ghaznavid rule in Greater Khorasan and surrounding regions. Subsequently, Tughril settled in Nishapur as his capital and, with the support of his brother and close allies, established his own state.
Following the Battle of Dandanaqan, Tughril, along with the Seljuk leadership, sent a letter to the Abbasid caliph al-Qa'im bi-Amrillah, requesting an official decree of authority, which was granted. Between the Hijri years 1040–1054, with the assistance of Ibrahim Inal, Tughril conquered large parts of Iranian territory, including the regions of Jibal and Iraq-i Ajam, and brought an end to the Buyid government in these areas. He captured the city of Ray, restored it, and declared it the capital. However, after capturing Isfahan, he moved the capital there. Later, Tughril brought Azerbaijan under his control and carried out military campaigns against Byzantium and other regions of Eastern Roman territories, further expanding the Seljuk realm.
In 1055, accepting an invitation from the Abbasid caliph to visit Baghdad, Tughril initiated a new phase in Seljuk–Abbasid relations. Between 1055–1061, he eliminated Buyid rule in Baghdad, captured Malik Rahim, and had sermons read in his name in those territories. After restoring Baghdad, Tughril arranged the marriage of Chaghri Beg’s daughter to the Abbasid caliph, thus strengthening ties with the caliphate. He subsequently seized the Jazira region. Later, after suppressing a revolt by his brother Ibrahim Inal and executing him, Tughril also defeated Arslan al-Basasiri, who had the backing of the Fatimid Caliphate. He married the caliph’s daughter despite opposition from the caliph himself—a union that was accompanied by numerous challenges. Ultimately, in 1063, Tughril died without leaving an heir and left behind a vast empire.
Tughril Beg was known as a devout figure and commissioned the construction of many mosques and madrasas. He was recognized for his adherence to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and, with the assistance of his vizier Amid al-Mulk Kunduri, imposed restrictions on the activities of other Islamic sects. While some sources describe him as a just ruler who avoided unnecessary bloodshed, other accounts report oppressive conduct by him and his army.
Tughril’s legacy was the administrative model he created, which was composed of the Turkic political tradition, the region’s customary administrative principles, and the religious legitimacy derived from the Abbasid Caliphate. This model reshaped the institution of sultanate into a form of absolute rule endowed with extraordinary authority. This form of rule overshadowed the worldly power of the caliph, recognizing only his spiritual leadership. Consequently, the caliph was compelled to submit to Tughril’s demands. Before the advent of the Seljuks, Iran was divided between several warring local powers, such as the Buyids, Kakuyids and Ghaznavids. As a result, it suffered from continuous war and destruction. However, under Tughril peace and prosperity were brought to the country and to Mesopotamia, a transition that was further reinforced due to the Seljuks' assimilation to Iranian-Muslim culture.
Name
"Tughril" was the Old Turkic word for a bird of prey, possibly the Crested goshawk. In early Turkic history and culture, starting from the Uyghur Khaganate and onwards, it was used as a personal name.Early life
Tughril was born in, most likely in the Central Asian steppes, where nomadic Oghuz Turks were roaming to find pasture for livestock. After the death of his father Mikail, Tughril and his brother Chaghri were reportedly raised by their grandfather Seljuk in Jand. It was seemingly during this period that the Seljuk family converted to Islam, at least nominally. In the following decades, the Seljuks were employed as mercenaries under the warring factions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm, in exchange for pasture for their herds.In the 1020s, Tughril and his other relatives were serving the Kara-Khanids of Bukhara. In 1026, the Kara-Khanids were driven out of Bukhara by the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Seljuk's son Arslan Isra'il fled to a place near Sarakhs, where he asked Mahmud for permission to settle in the area in return for military aid. Mahmud, however, had Arslan Isra'il put in prison, where the latter soon died. Meanwhile, Tughril and Chaghri remained loyal to their Kara-Khanid overlords, although there were disputes between them in 1029; in 1032, they fought alongside the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Dabusiyya.
After the Kara-Khanid ruler Ali-Tegin's death, however, the Seljuks changed their allegiance to the ruler of Khwarazm, Harun, but were repelled by the Oghuz ruler Shah Malik in 1035. The Seljuks then went to the same place as Arslan Isra'il, and asked the son of Mahmud, Mas'ud I, for asylum. Mas'ud, however, considered the nomadic Turks to be dangerous and sent an army under his commander-in-chief Begtoghdi. The army was shortly defeated by the Seljuks, who forced Mas'ud to surrender Nasa, Farava and Dihistan in return for Seljuk recognition of Ghaznavid authority and protection of the region from other Turkic tribes.
In 1037, the Seljuks also forced the Ghaznavids to cede them Sarakhs, Abivard and Marw. The Seljuks then slowly began to subdue the cities of Khorasan, and, when they captured Nishapur, Tughril proclaimed himself Sultan of Khorasan.
The political and military history of the Seljuk Turks
The political and military history of the Seljuk dynasty began in the second half of the 4th century AH with Seljuk’s involvement in political and military conflicts that took place in the northeastern regions of the Caspian Sea and northern Transoxiana.Following Seljuk, his sons—Israel, Musa Yabghu, and Mikail—as well as Mikail’s sons, Tughril Beg and Chaghri Beg, participated in the ongoing conflicts in the regions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. They entered the service of various rulers, primarily the Samanids, in return for guarantees of access to pasturelands for their livestock and even resisted other Turkic groups. Toward the end of the Samanid period, some Turks initially assisted the Samanids in combating other Turks and defeated their enemies. However, they later departed from the Samanids and turned against them. The role of the Seljuk family and other Turks or Oghuz in this matter is debated; while some sources accuse the Seljuks, others exonerate them. After the fall of the Samanids, the Seljuks became subject to the Qarakhanids, continued their nomadic lifestyle under their service, and gradually consolidated their power. The Seljuk dynasty collaborated with the Qarakhanid ruler Ali Tigin and supported him in capturing Bukhara in 1020. Later, one of the Seljuks married Ali Tigin’s daughter and, through this marriage, gained a special status within Ali Tigin’s domain.
Meanwhile, Mahmud of Ghazni took advantage of the unrest in Qarakhanid territories and, under the pretext of rescuing those suffering under Ali Tigin’s oppression, launched a campaign into Transoxiana. In reality, he aimed to establish control over Bukhara and Samarkand. With Mahmud’s arrival in the region, Ali Tigin fled to the desert, and his ally Israel Seljukoghlu went into hiding.
According to different accounts, Israel was captured after Mahmud discovered his hiding place, sent to Ghazni, and later to India, where he remained until his death. Another version states that Mahmud invited one of the Seljuks to his court, and Israel, as the senior member of the family, accepted the invitation. At first, Mahmud treated him warmly and respectfully, but later, fearing the growing power of the Seljuks and their numerous soldiers, he arrested him along with his followers and imprisoned him in a fortress in India, where Israel died.
To prevent a Seljuk uprising, Mahmud of Ghazni portrayed this incident as accidental and temporary. Initially, the Seljuks considered revolting against Mahmud, but upon receiving his message and recognizing his strength, they abandoned this plan.
The Seljuks’ entry into Khorasan and seizure of power
The Seljuk Turks requested permission from Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to settle in Khorasan and benefit from its natural resources. In their current location, the scarcity of pastures and the oppression of various regional rulers had created difficult conditions for them. Confident in his powerful army and convinced that the death of Seljuk leaders would disperse their forces, Sultan Mahmud ignored the warnings of his advisors and allowed the Turcomans to enter Khorasan. Following this permission, they crossed the Jayhun River and settled in the deserts around Sarakhs, Farava, and Bavard. According to another account, they were located between Nisa and Abivard.The most vocal opponent of this decision was Arslan Jazib, the governor of Tus. He openly objected to the Sultan’s decision. However, Mahmud dismissed his concerns, labeling him "harsh." Some sources suggest that the Turcomans’ reliability as a military force and the revenues generated from their presence in Khorasan influenced Mahmud’s decision. The Turcomans settled in Khorasan and benefited from the region’s vast pastures and rich resources. However, they soon began looting and revolting. The people complained to Sultan Mahmud about their actions. The Sultan ordered Arslan Jazib to suppress them, but Arslan failed to manage the situation, and the Sultan reprimanded him severely. Arslan requested the Sultan to come personally to Khorasan, and in 419 AH, the Sultan set out for the city of Tus in great anger. After meeting with Arslan and receiving a report on the situation, the Sultan gave him a large army to defeat the Seljuks. In a battle near Rabat, close to Farava, Arslan inflicted a heavy defeat on the Turcomans. Many were killed, others were captured, and the rest fled to Balkh and Dihistan.
Despite this severe defeat, the Turcomans were not completely destroyed and began to wait for an opportunity to return to Khorasan. After Sultan Mahmud’s death, the Seljuks corresponded with Sultan Masud in the hope of returning to Khorasan and, after agreeing to certain conditions, re-entered the region. However, they soon resumed their plundering and attacks. One of the key factors in the Seljuks’ rise was Sultan Masud’s failure to properly assess their threat and his excessive focus on India. This ultimately led to Sultan Masud’s devastating defeat and death. The Seljuk Turks engaged Sultan Masud and his representatives in several battles across Khorasan and defeated them each time.