Jicaquean languages
Jicaquean, also known as Tolan, is a small language family of Honduras. There are two attested Jicaquean languages, Tol and Western Jicaque, which Campbell reports were about as distant as English and Swedish. Only Tol survives.
Classification
Prior to an influential paper by Greenberg and Swadesh in 1953 Tol was thought to be a language isolate, i.e., there existed no knowledge as to its possible genetic affinities. They argued that Tol should be added to the Hokan stock, a large language stock, phylum or family, which was proposed by R. B. Dixon and Alfred D. Kroeber in 1913. In 1977, David Oltrogge proposed to link Tol to the extinct Subtiaba language of Nicaragua, and also to Chontal of Oaxaca, also known as Tequistlateco. This indirectly amounted to a mere sub-classification, since all of the three languages in question were part of the proposed Hokan stock. A couple of years later, Campbell and Oltrogge published a reconstruction of Jicaquean phonemes, based on the available information on Western and Eastern Jicaque. In that same paper they expressed strong doubt in the Hokan affiliation of Tol and mild enthusiasm regarding the possible link to Chontal of Oaxaca, but stressed that much more information was needed to be able to say anything reasonable. More recently, Kaufman has expressed his continuing support of the Hokan affiliation of Tol.Granberry & Vescelius speculate that the extinct Ciguayo language of Hispaniola might have its most likely relatives in the Tolan languages.
Proto-language
Proto-Jicaque reconstructions by Campbell and Oltrogge :| no. | gloss | Proto-Jicaque |
| 2 | all | *pʰɨ |
| 3 | always | *han- |
| 5 | arm, back, shoulder | *pʰel |
| 7 | arrow | *¢imea ? |
| 8 | ashes | *pʰɨpʰɨh |
| 13 | to be | *kʼos |
| 16 | bed | *kʰan |
| 17 | belly | *-kol |
| 18 | big | *pɨneh ? |
| 24 | black | *te |
| 27 | blood | *kʼas |
| 28 | blue | *¢u |
| 30 | body | *pʼɨ |
| 32 | bone | *kʰele |
| 34 | bow | *halek |
| 37 | to burn | *tV-pʷe |
| 38 | bush | *hokʼ-la |
| 40 | buzzard | *mantɨ |
| 45 | cloud | *mol |
| 46 | coal | *¢ʰek |
| 51 | cougar | *pɨkʼa |
| 59 | daughter | *kus |
| 62 | deer | *pʼɨs |
| 63 | to die | *pɨʔ ? |
| 65 | dog | *¢ʰiyo |
| 66 | to drink | *mɨʔ |
| 67 | dry | *pʰa |
| 69 | ear | *pʰa¢ʼ |
| 70 | earth, land | *ma |
| 71 | to eat | *la ? |
| 72 | egg | *pehey |
| 75 | excrement | *pɨ |
| 78 | far | *kampa |
| 79 | father | *pa |
| 84 | fire | *kʼawa |
| 85 | firewood | *wɨ |
| 86 | fish | *kʰul |
| 89 | flea | *pel |
| 91 | fly | *no¢o¢ |
| 93 | forehead | *wala |
| 94 | to forget | *-pɨʔ |
| 95 | four | *ulupʰana |
| 97 | fruit | *wolas |
| 99 | to give | *-tekʼa |
| 101 | good | *wɨ |
| 102 | grain | *hulup |
| 103 | grandmother, female | *mɨy |
| 104 | to grind | *kʰol ? |
| 106 | hair | *¢ʼil |
| 107 | hand | *mas ? |
| 108 | he, that | *hup |
| 109 | head | *hapʰuk |
| 110 | to hear | *pʰak |
| 111 | heart | *has- |
| 114 | horn | *¢ʰeme |
| 115 | house | *wa |
| 117 | I | *nap ? |
| 119 | intestines | *¢ʼul |
| 123 | knee | *tikʼ- |
| 125 | to laugh | *wiʔ |
| 126 | leg | *tek |
| 128 | lip | *lɨp |
| 129 | liver | *kom |
| 131 | long | *kampa |
| 132 | to look for | *pal- |
| 133 | louse | *tɨtʼ |
| 135 | macaw | *pʼɨsa |
| 137 | male, grandfather | *koy |
| 138 | man | *yom |
| 140 | meat | *pis |
| 143 | moon | *mɨmɨy |
| 144 | month | *mɨy-pʰini |
| 148 | mouth | *lala |
| 149 | much | *pɨlɨk |
| 150 | my, mine | *na¢aʔ |
| 152 | navel | *lulu |
| 153 | nephew | *kelew ? |
| 155 | no | *ma- |
| 156 | nose | *mik |
| 157 | to nurse | *¢oʔ |
| 158 | oak | *¢ʼolol |
| 159 | one | *pʰani |
| 164 | parrot | *kʰuyu |
| 168 | red | *he |
| 172 | round | *mul- ? |
| 175 | salt | *¢olim |
| 177 | sandal, shoe | *¢ompit |
| 178 | scorpion | *¢ʰew ? |
| 179 | to see | *nu |
| 186 | skinny | *kʰele |
| 187 | sky | *alpa |
| 188 | sleep | *han- |
| 190 | smoke | *mus |
| 192 | to snore | *-hol- |
| 194 | to sow, plant | *sin- |
| 195 | to speak | *wele |
| 196 | spider | *kolok |
| 201 | stone | *pe |
| 202 | summer | *¢ʰikin |
| 203 | sun | *lo¢ʼak |
| 204 | tail | *sokʼ |
| 207 | there is/are not | *kuwa |
| 210 | thorn | *ham ? |
| 212 | to tie | *¢upa- |
| 215 | tongue | *pelam |
| 216 | tooth | *wis |
| 217 | tree | *yo |
| 220 | two | *matʼɨ |
| 221 | uncle | *kokʰam ? |
| 224 | wasp | *petʰel |
| 225 | water | *sɨ |
| 226 | we | *-kup |
| 228 | white | *pʰe |
| 229 | wind | *lɨpʰɨ |
| 230 | woman | *kep |
| 233 | word | *wele |
| 235 | worm, caterpillar | *¢ʼihih |
| 237 | yellow | *lu |
| 239 | you | *hip |