Terroir
Terroir is a French term used to describe the environmental factors that affect a crop's phenotype, including unique environment contexts, farming practices and a crop's specific growth habitat. Collectively, these contextual characteristics are said to have a character; terroir also refers to this character.
Some artisanal crops and foods for which terroir may apply include wine, cheese, coffee, single malt whisky, onions, and tea.
Terroir is the basis of the French wine appellation d'origine contrôlée system, which is a model for wine appellation and regulation in France and around the world. The AOC system presumes that the land from which the grapes are grown imparts a unique quality that is specific to that growing site. The extent of terroir's significance is debated in the wine industry.
Origins
Over the centuries, French winemakers developed the concept of terroir by observing the differences in wines from different regions, vineyards, or even different sections of the same vineyard. The French began to crystallize the concept of terroir as a way of describing the unique aspects of a place that influence and shape the wine made from it. Long before the French, the wine-making regions of the ancient world had already developed a concept of different regions having the potential to produce very different and distinct wines, even from the same grapes. The Ancient Greeks would stamp amphorae with the seal of the region they came from, and different regions established reputations based on the quality of their wines. For centuries, literate and disciplined members of the Benedictine and Cistercian orders cultivated grapes in much of Burgundy. With vast landholdings, the monks could conduct large-scale observation of the influences that various parcels of land had on the wine it produced. Some legends have the monks establishing the boundaries of different terroirs – many of which still exist today as the Grand Cru vineyards of Burgundy.Elements
While wine experts disagree about the exact definition, particular consideration is given to the natural elements that are beyond the control of humans.Components often described as aspects of terroir include:
- Climate
- Soil type
- Geomorphology
- Other organisms growing in, on, and around the vine plots
Mark A. Matthews, a professor of viticulture and plant physiology at University of California, Davis, has described the common conception of terroir as a myth. While Matthews agrees local characteristics can have an effect on plant growth and the wines made from particular grapes, he points out that the term is imprecisely defined, and also proposes the concept of terroir is accepted primarily based on traditional belief, and is not backed by rigorous data or research.
Human controlled elements
The definition of terroir can be expanded to include elements that are controlled or influenced by humans. This can include the decision of which grape variety to plant, though whether or not that grape variety will produce quality wine is an innate element of terroir that may be beyond human influence. Some grape varieties thrive better in certain areas than in others. The winemaking decision of using wild or ambient yeast in fermentation instead of cultured or laboratory produced yeast can be a reflection of terroir. The use of oak is a controversial element since some will advocate that its use is beneficial in bringing out the natural terroir characteristics while others will argue that its use can mask the influences of the terroir. Vineyard management can also be seen as a human controlled aspect of terroir.Influences of viticulture and winemaking
Many decisions during the growing and winemaking process can either lessen or increase the expression of terroir in the wine. These include decisions about pruning, irrigation and selecting time of harvest. At the winery, the use of oak, cultured or ambient yeast, length of maceration and time in contact with lees, temperature during fermentation, and processes like micro-oxygenation, chaptalization, clarification with fining agents, and reverse osmosis all have the potential to either reduce or emphasize some aspect derived from the terroir. Winemakers can work between the extremes of producing wine that is terroir-driven and focused on purely expressing the unique aspects of a region's terroir, or winemaking that is done without any consideration given to terroir. Furthermore, aspects of terroir such as climate and soil type may be considered when deciding such things as which grape variety to plant if the goal is to make good wine rather than terroir-driven wine.The importance of these influences depends on the culture of a particular wine region. In France, particularly Burgundy, there is the belief that the role of a winemaker is to bring out the expression of a wine's terroir. The French word for "winemaker," vigneron, is more aptly translated as "wine-grower" rather than "winemaker". The belief that the terroir is the dominant influence in the wine is the basis behind French wine labels emphasizing the region, vineyard, or AOC more prominently than the varietal of grape, and often more prominently than the producer.
Appellation systems
The influence of terroir means that wines from a particular region are unique, incapable of being reproduced outside that area, even if the grape variety and winemaking techniques are painstakingly duplicated. Winemakers in Burgundy do not believe that they are producing Pinot noir that happens to be grown in Burgundy, but that they are producing unique Burgundian wines that happen to be made from Pinot noir. Appellation systems, such as the French AOC systems, have developed around the concepts of "unique wines from a unique area". These systems have also developed into protected designation of origin across the European Union so that, for example, winemakers from outside a region like Tuscany can not produce a Sangiovese wine and call it a Chianti. While the wine may be made from the same clonal variety of Sangiovese, in the same soil composition as found in the Chianti region with winemakers using the Tuscan method of production, there is an assumption that the two wines will be different due to terroir.The names of these European wine regions are protected so that wines from different regions and different terroir are not confused with wines from that those regions – i.e. a Spanish or Australian "chianti". In the United States there is some confusion over the use of semi-generic names like Champagne and Port but there has been more effort by the American wine industry to recognize the unique association of place names with the wines produced in those places, such as the 2005 Napa Declaration on Place agreement. While appellation systems and the protected designations of origin can be a way of protecting "unique terroir", the commercial importance of terroir has been a much debated topic in the wine industry.
Impact of climate change
As climate change disrupts long-established patterns of temperature and precipitation in wine-growing regions and causes more extreme weather events, there are potential serious impacts on terroir and the wine industry. Hotter temperatures and an earlier growing season can push berries towards a higher sugar content, less acids and differences in secondary compounds that are important for aromas. Growers are attempting to adapt in a variety of ways in response. In 2021, in a controversial move, the French National Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment formally authorized wine producers in the Bordeaux region to experiment on a trial basis with four red and two white vine types selected from other areas of France. The new types can make up no more than 10% of the final wine blend. The rest must be from the six red and eight white grape varieties traditionally cultivated in the region during its 2,000 year history. Another approach to protecting plants against the effects of climate change involves experimenting with rootstocks to develop plants that are resilient, vigorous and use water more efficiently under stressful conditions. Differences in planting, irrigation and harvesting practices are also being studied. Practices developed in warmer climates like Australia, Israel, South America, and Spain are being adapted for use in countries that used to be cooler, as temperatures rise.In other drinks
The concept of terroir exists in other drinks, notably in tea and Cognac where the chalky soil, climate and distance from the ocean are all factors influencing the product. Producers of single malt whisky, bourbon, rum, and vodka use terroir elements in their production process, including wood flavors derived from barrel aging.In artisan cheese
The tenet of terroir has also been applied to the production of artisan cheese, and French authorities have fought to balance traditional cheesemakers terroir cheeses concerns with those of major industrialists.The flavor of cheeses is impacted by the production location. For instance, Alpine pastures are composed of a larger variety of grasses, herbs, and flowers, than those in the lowlands. At higher elevations, the flora also changes significantly throughout the grazing period, thus also impacting the taste of cheeses produced in different batches. In Switzerland, Alp cheese is typically indicated with a special logo, in addition to the Appellation d'origine protégée.
A scientifically validated example of terroir can be found in the alpine cheeses of the Aosta Valley, such as Fontina. The diet of the Valdostana cows includes Alpine clover, a plant that emits a strong, spicy fragrance. Research has confirmed that volatile organic compounds from this clover are transferred to the milk and can be detected in the final cheese, imparting a unique aroma and flavour. Furthermore, specific fatty acids and hydrocarbons from the clover serve as reliable chemical biomarkers, providing an indelible chemical fingerprint that traces the cheese back to the specific clover-rich meadows where the cows grazed.