Rabbinic period
The Rabbinic period, or the Talmudic period, denotes a transformative era in Jewish history, spanning from the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE to the Muslim conquest in 638 CE. Pivotal in shaping Judaism into its classical form, it is regarded as the second most important era in Jewish history after the Biblical period.
After the failure of the Great Jewish Revolt of 66–73 CE, Roman measures such as the and land confiscation severely impacted the Jewish population of Judaea. The destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple required Jewish culture to adapt in order to survive. Judaism endured through the establishment of new centers of scholarship and leadership, initially at Yavne under Yohanan ben Zakkai, who promoted a focus on Torah study and synagogue worship. The next decades also saw the Jewish response to several catastrophic events, including the failed Diaspora uprisings of 115–117 CE and the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135 CE, a failed bid for the reestablishment of an independent Jewish state in Judaea. The suppression of these revolts by the Romans led to the devastation of Judea proper as well as diaspora communities, the death and enslavement of many Jews, further displacement, and economic hardship. Despite these challenges, Jewish communal life continued to thrive, particularly in the Galilee, which became a major center of Jewish life and scholarship. The authority of the Patriarchs was instrumental in maintaining Jewish continuity during this transformative period.
During the later Rabbinic period, the Jewish population in the Land of Israel continued to decline under Christianized Roman rule. Jews started facing discriminatory laws and religious persecution, and many emigrated from the country, eventually establishing flourishing Diaspora communities. From the 3rd century onward, the Jewish community in Babylonia became a central hub of Jewish life, benefiting from a relatively tolerant environment under the Sasanian Empire. Contemporary estimates frequently place the Babylonian Jewish population during this period at approximately one million, establishing it as the largest Jewish diaspora community of the time. This period of economic prosperity and political freedom allowed the Babylonian Jewish community, led by the Exilarch, to thrive and foster significant theological and literary developments. During the Rabbinic period, Jewish communities were also present in various regions of the Mediterranean, including Egypt, North Africa, Asia Minor, Italy, and Spain.
The Rabbinic period was consequential in the ongoing development of Judaism and its traditions. During this time, the Jewish religious practice transitioned from a focus on the Temple and sacrificial practices to a greater emphasis on Halakha and Aggadah. This period saw the creation of major texts of rabbinic literature, such as the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud, and various midrashim. Jews maintained their cultural and religious identity by continuing to speak and write in Hebrew and Aramaic, and developed liturgy, including piyyutim. They set up synagogues and yeshivas, engaged in mysticism, and hoped for the Messiah to bring their exile to an end.
History
Aftermath of the destruction
The First Jewish–Roman War took a heavy toll on the Jewish people in the Land of Israel. Approximately one quarter of the Jewish population in Judaea was killed in the fighting and its aftermath and about one tenth was taken into captivity. The Temple, as a national and administrative center of Jewish life and worship was demolished, Jerusalem was destroyed, and the autonomous positions of the Sanhedrin and the High-priesthood were rendered null and void. The social structure prior to the destruction collapsed and the factions of the Sadducees and the Essenes disappeared. On the other hand, the status of the Jews as a people recognized as a nation in the Roman Empire remained, as did their freedom to follow their faith and religious law. Vespasian placed an additional tax of two Dinar for each Jew, the, creating a financial burden on Jews and meant to humiliate them. The Romans also confiscated land from Jews.New beginnings
Around the period of the destruction of the Temple, Yohanan ben Zakkai moved from Jerusalem to Yavneh, a small town on the coast, where he established a new center of leadership. The Rabbinic movement adopted and further developed the Pharisee approach to Halakha.This new movement put an emphasis on Torah study, and prayer and the Synagogue emerged as the center of community life. At this stage, the center of Jewish leadership was still in the Land of Israel, although it would eventually move to Babylonia.
Although Yohanan ben Zakkai made certain decrees "to remember the Temple", his general approach was to continue observing Judaism regardless of the Temple or lack thereof.
Ribaz was replaced by Gamaliel II, who sought to maintain ties with the diaspora by visiting communities abroad and welcoming visitors to Yavneh for study and consultation.
Within the Jewish community, prestige and authority was given to the nasi. But this authority was challenged by rabbis several times until Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi consolidated his authority as both the patriarch and religious leader.
Bar Kokhba revolt
Between 132–135 CE, the Jews made their last serious attempt to regain their independence in the form of the Bar Kokhba revolt. The Rabbis made an effort to unify the people under Bar Kokhba. The rabbinic leaders understood that such a revolt had no chance of surviving without unity within the Jewish community, and they put much effort into unifying the people behind Bar Kokhba. The failure of the revolt led to many casualties, as well as an economic downturn that caused many Jews to migrate to the Galilee and outside of Israel. In fact, Jews were prohibited from living in the area surrounding Jerusalem during this period; nevertheless, this prohibition was not always enforced, and there appears to have been a small Jewish community that established itself in Jerusalem around the end of the second century.The emergence of the patriarchate
The Talmud describes the ten places where the Sanhedrin was exiled, the later places - namely Usha, Shefa-Amr, Beit She'arim, Sepphoris, and Tiberias being in the Galilee. These exiles lasted a total of about one hundred years. The population of Judea also migrated to the north during this period, making the Galilee the center of Jewish life during this time. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt around 140 CE, when the Sanhedrin was located in Usha, Simeon ben Gamaliel II took its leadership in the form of the Patriarch. This title was passed down from father to son from then on. Although Gamaliel II, his father, is also referred to as "Patriarch", this title may be simply applying the family title retroactively.)The Patriarchs managed to stabilize the economy; in light of the many fields that were left empty following the revolt, they made decrees allowing the owners to reclaim them. To preserve the upper hand of the Talmudic academies in Syria Palaestina, the Patriarchate clarified to the community of Lower Mesopotamia, known to Jews as "Babylonia", that the calendar can only be established in the Land of Israel.
The Jews experienced more favorable conditions under the Severan dynasty. According to Jerome, both Septimius Severus and Caracalla "very greatly cherished the Jews." Towards the middle of the third century, the Christian scholar Origen wrote that the Jewish ethnarchs held power comparable to kings and had the authority to condemn individuals to death:
Decline of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel
The fortunes of the Jews in the Land of Israel changed significantly under Byzantine rule. Between the fourth and seventh centuries, the region ceased to be predominantly Jewish, as much of the non-Jewish population had converted to Christianity. The decline and eventual disappearance of the patriarchate, which several scholars suggest occurred around 425 CE, led to the loss of central Jewish leadership, while their spiritual academies also diminished. Decentralization increased the prominence of local communities centered around synagogues.In 553, Byzantine emperor Justinian issued a decree banning the study of the Mishnah and mandating the use of the Septuagint or Aquila's translation for biblical readings, part of his campaign to convert Jews to Christianity. This marked a decline in the influence of the Jewish community in Palestine, reflected in the cessation of scholarly exchange with Babylon. In the 9th century, Pirqoi ben Baboi described the dire conditions for Jews under Christian rule, contrasting it with the flourishing Torah study in Babylonia:
Thus, said Mar Yehudai of blessed memory: religious persecution was decreed upon the Jews of the Land of Israel—that they should not recite the Shema and should not pray, because the evil Edom decreed, religious persecution against the Land of Israel that they should not read the Torah, and they hid away all the Torah scrolls because they would burn them."As the influence of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel over the Diaspora waned, Babylonian leadership emerged as the central authority for Jewish cultural and political matters by the Early Muslim conquests.