Stefan Lazarević
Stefan Lazarević, also known as Stefan the Tall, ruled as a Serbian prince and despot. He was also a diplomat, legislator, ktetor, patron of the arts, poet, and one of the founding members of the Order of the Dragon. The son of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, he was regarded as one of the finest knights and military leaders of his time. After the death of his father in the Battle of Kosovo, he became ruler of Moravian Serbia and ruled with his mother, Milica of Serbia|Milica], until he reached adulthood in 1393. Stefan led troops in several battles as an Ottoman vassal, until asserting independence after receiving the title of despot from the Byzantine Empire in 1402.
Becoming a Hungarian ally in 1403–04, he received possessions, such as the Belgrade and Golubac Fortress. He also held the superior rank in the Order of the Dragon. During his reign, he had a conflict with his nephew, Đurađ Branković, which ended in 1412. Lazarević also inherited Zeta and waged war against Venice. Since he was childless, he designated his nephew Đurađ as heir in 1426, a year before his death.
On the domestic front, he broke the resistance of the Serbian nobles and used the periods of peace to strengthen Serbia politically, economically, culturally and militarily. In 1412, he issued the Code of Mines, with a section on governing of Novo Brdo–the largest mine in the Balkans, at the time. The code increased the development of mining in Serbia, which had been the main economic backbone of the Serbian Despotate. At the time of his death, Serbia was one of the largest silver producers in Europe. In the field of architecture, he continued the development of the Morava school. His reign and personal literary works are sometimes associated with early signs of the Renaissance in the Serbian lands. He introduced knightly tournaments, modern battle tactics, and firearms to Serbia. He was a great patron of the arts and culture by providing shelter and support to scholars and refugees from neighboring countries that had been taken by the Ottomans. In addition, he was himself a writer, his most notable work being A Homage to Love, which is characterized by Renaissance lines. During his reign, the Resava School was formed.
On 1 August 1927, the 500th anniversary of his death, he was canonized by the Serbian Orthodox Church as Saint Despot Stefan of Serbia, and his relics are kept in the Koporin Monastery.
Background and family
Stefan was the son of Lazar, the prince of Moravian Serbia, and his wife, Milica, who was a member of a collateral branch of the Nemanjić dynasty. Milica's father, Prince Vratko, was a direct descendant of Vukan, the eldest son of Stefan Nemanja. In addition to Stefan, they had seven other children.Marriage
On 12 September 1405, Stefan married Helena Gattilusio, the daughter of Francesco II of Lesbos. According to Konstantin the Philosopher, Stefan first saw his wife in Lesbos, where Francesco II offered him a choice among his daughters; the marriage was arranged "with the advice and participation" of Helena's sister, Empress Eirene. There is no mention of Helena after her marriage to Stefan; this led British historian Anthony Luttrell to remark that "apparently there were never any children; nothing is known of her death or burial; and, most unusually, she did not appear in any of the post-1402 fresco portraits of Stefan". Luttrell concludes, "Maybe she was too young for the marriage to be consummated, and perhaps she stayed on Lesbos and never traveled to Serbia; possibly she died soon after her marriage."Prince
Early years and rise to the throne
Stefan Lazarević was born c. 1377 in Kruševac, Serbia. After his father was killed in the Battle of Kosovo on 15 June 1389, Stefan became the new Serbian prince; before he became of age, the state was ruled by his mother, Princess Milica.Stefan's succession came about in a especially poor time for the state of Lazarević, which found itself surrounded by powerful neighbors. On one side was Bayezid I, who withdrew after the Battle of Kosovo to consolidate his power among the Ottomans, and on the other was Vuk Branković, the husband of Stefan's sister Mara, who became the most powerful of Serbian aristocrats after the battle. The neighbor to the west was Bosnian king Tvrtko I, who was considered the legitimate successor of the Nemanjić crown, and he portrayed the Battle of Kosovo as his own victory over the Ottomans, while their possessions in the north bordered Hungary, King Sigismund.
On 7 July, three weeks after the battle, Sigismund sent his palatine, Nicholas II Garay, to negotiate with Vuk Branković about things that were in his and the Serbian favor, where he confirmed in advance any agreements that they had achieved. Although both Nicholas and Vuk were married to sisters of Stefan, it was not uncommon at the time that strong neighbors, even relatives, to suppress the legitimate heirs to the throne as juveniles. The outcome of these negotiations is not known, but already in the fall, Sigismund began an offensive against the young Serbian prince Stefan. His forces crossed the Sava River in October, and in early November, they occupied the fortresses of Borač and Čestin near present-day Kragujevac.
In these circumstances, Milica, along with the state assembly, with the support of Serbian Patriarch Spyridon, decided on the conclusion of peace and acceptance of the supremacy of the sultan Bayezid I. Details of making this decision are not closely familiar, but peace was certainly made before Patriarch Spirydon's death on 18 August 1389.
According to the conclusion of peace, Prince Stefan pledged to send extra squads to the Ottoman sultan and pay tribute, and he and his brother, Vuk Lazarević, had to appear annually at the Sultan's Palace to confirm their allegiance to Bayezid I. In addition, Bayezid I married the youngest daughter of Prince Lazar and Princess Milica, Olivera, and Vuk and Stefan had to personally take her to the Sultan Bayezid in Bursa. The effects of this peace deal were immediately visible; already in summer 1390, Serbian forces reinforced with extra Ottoman detachments recaptured the lost cities. Stefan militarily supported various Ottoman campaigns, and in return, Bayazid I supported Stefan against his opponents and his restoration of Serbia, which would become a relatively strong state.
There is no data on the activities of Vuk Branković during this period. It is certain that after the Battle of Kosovo, he sought to expand his domain, and he used the same title that was used by his father.
However, by early May 1390, Vuk felt threatened by Stefan, and he asked the Republic of Ragusa to facilitate his safety if it came in a quandary. There is no evidence of direct hostility between Stefan and Vuk, and the two families kept an uneasy peace during this period.
Conflict at the Serbian-Hungarian border continued over the next two years. In the summer of 1392, Sigismund crossed near Kovin and marched to Ždrelo, then retreated and tried to take Golubac. At the same time, the area of Vuk Branković had been under Ottoman attack. In early 1392, the Ottomans occupied Skoplje and continued marching north, forcing Vuk to make peace with Bayezid and become his vassal by the end of the year.
Battles of Rovine and of Nicopolis
In 1393, Stefan became an adult and took over the throne, and Milica became a nun and withdrew to her endowment, the monastery Ljubostinja. That same year, Bayezid I dealt with Bulgarian vassals for their alleged links with the Hungarian King Sigismund. Veliko Tarnovo was besieged, and Bulgaria was devastated; the Bulgarian ruler Ivan Shishman was Stefan's brother-in-law. After this, many Bulgarian scholars sought refuge in neighboring Christian countries, among which was Serbia.During the autumn of 1394, Bayezid began gathering forces for a campaign against Mircea I of Wallachia, where Stefan personally led the largest Serbian heavy cavalry squadron, while Serbian nobles Marko, Konstantin Dejanović, and Konstantin Balšić led their own forces. Bayezid's army crossed the Danube, and the battle of Rovine took place on 17 May 1395, near present-day Pitești, with a Wallachian victory. In the battle, Marko and Konstantin were killed, and Bayezid annexed their lands, largely boost to his economy. According to Constantine the Philosopher in his Life of Stefan Lazarević, before the battle, Marko said to Konstantin: "I pray God to help the Christians and that I will be among the first dead in this war."
The Ottoman forces then took over Vidin, and, reinforced by Serbian detachments, marched into Banat during the summer of 1396, after attacking the lands of Vuk Branković and conquering a large part of it with Priština.
The victory at Rovine sparked a crusade in which forces from France, Burgundy, Germany, and other European countries joined Hungarian king Sigismund and Mircea I with the Venetian fleet, which was to enter the Danube from the Black Sea and support the army on the mainland. The crusader forces gathered in Hungary, after which they crossed the Danube and took Vidin. After that, the march continued down the Danube. Nicopolis, which had a large Ottoman garrison, was besieged. The siege broke the blockade of Constantinople, forcing Bayezid to send troops towards the Danube, joining forces with Stefan Lazarević's heavy cavalry near Plovdiv. A great battle took place on 25 September 1396 in which the Crusader forces were destroyed. Although numerically superior, the Crusader army lacked a joint command and thus was poorly coordinated on the battlefield. Also, they were both unfamiliar and ignorant of the Ottoman army's war methods. After initial Crusader success, the Ottomans initiated a counterattack that ended after the entry of the Hungarian knights in battle, which began to suppress them. In this turning point of the battle, the Serbian heavy cavalry led by Stefan Lazarević himself broke through the Hungarian lines and surrounded King Sigismund, attacking the Hungarian banner troops of Nicholas II Garay. Garay's troops were dispersed, which had a decisive influence on the course of the battle, because some of the Crusaders thought that Sigismund had died and that the battle was lost, while the Hungarian commanders convinced Sigismund that the battle was practically lost and that it was better to withdraw. After that, the Crusader lines fell apart, and a carnage ensued. One of the participants in the battle, Johann Schiltberger, described the Serbian attack:
According to some, Serbian forces were hidden in a grove on the left wing of Bayezid's forces, making a sudden attack on the Hungarians, probably from the side. A significant role was played by Stephen II Lackfi and Mircea I, because they withdrew from the battlefield with their forces just before Stefan's attack, leaving Sigismund without support. They had possibly dealt with Stefan before the battle. Sigismund managed to escape on a fisherman's boat to the Venetian ships on the Danube. It is possible that Stefan left enough time for him to board the boat; Stefan saving Sigismund may be one of the causes of Stefan's later induction into the Order of the Dragon.
There were disastrous consequences for the Balkan Christians after the defeat at the Battle of Nicopolis. Vidin was destroyed, Athens was occupied, the Despotate of Morea was devastated once again, the fall of Constantinople became practically inevitable, and the area of Vuk Branković was taken by the Ottomans. Vuk Branković was captured and soon died in captivity. Most of his area was transferred to the control of Stefan Lazarević, a small portion was left to his wife Maria and his sons, while the Ottomans retained strategic locations under their direct rule. In addition, the Ottoman forces marched into Hungary and plundered its southern parts, especially Zemun and Dmitrovica.
Incursion to Bosnia and its consequences
The Ottomans continued the offensive in the Balkans in January 1398 and attacked the Bosnian Kingdom. The leader of the campaign was one of Bayezid's sons, Musa Çelebi, with Prince Stefan attached to him with a smaller force. This campaign, besides looting Bosnia, did not achieve any success, and the biggest culprit, according to Stefan's biographer, was a very bad winter.A faction of nobility tried to take advantage of Stefan's campaign to oust him from his throne. The faction leaders, dukes Novak Belocrkvić and Nikola Zojić, sought military aid from Voivode Mihajlo and tried to blame the failure of the Bosnian campaign on Stefan's connections with Sigismund to the Porte. The exact course of further events is not precisely known, but it is evident that Stefan knew of the plot, being informed of it via Mihajlo. Duke Nikola was assassinated. Seeing that, Duke Novak took monastic vows and ceded his lands to Stefan, saving his life.
It is also certain that their allegations reached Bayezid, and in the second half of March, the Ottoman forces marched into Serbia. It is not known what they did in Serbia; there is no evidence of the invasion of any of the neighboring countries. In the spring, Stefan's mother and nun Jefimija went to Bayezid to smooth the relations between them. They returned to Serbia before 23 May and managed to ensure that Stefan was received by Bayezid and justified himself before the sultan. In addition, they brought from Bursa the relics of St. Petka, which were most likely placed in the castle church in Kruševac, Lazarica.
Bayezid is reported to have held Stefan in high esteem, bestowing upon him a respect which he was not accustomed to his Christian vassals, or even his own sons. When some of Stefan's nobles complained to Bayezid that he was plotting with the Hungarians against the Ottomans, Stefan first sent his mother to Edirne to plead his case with the sultan, and then went there himself. Both mother and son were received generously by Bayezid, and the embarrassing situation was resolved:
Battle of Ankara
The relationship between Prince Stefan and the Branković family over the years is not known from historical sources. It is known that they were able, with the most money that Vuk Branković left to guard the Kotor and the Republic of Ragusa, to recover some of the former countries. In early 1402, their area included parts of Kosovo, Polimlje, Sjenica, and Brskovo, and since the spring of that year, they became Bayezid's vassals, with the same responsibilities Prince Stefan had. Beyond their control remained Zvečan, Jeleč, and Gluhavica, which were held by the Ottomans, and Priština, which we know that in March of the same year, was part of the state of Stefan Lazarević.Great changes in events in Asia Minor and Southeastern Europe were caused by an invasion of the Tatars under the leadership of Tamerlane, one of the great conquerors in world history. His invasion of Asia Minor forced Bayezid I to gather his forces and try to confront him in battle, which took place on 28 July 1402, near Angora.
In this battle, Ottoman forces suffered defeat, Bayezid I and one of his sons, Musa Çelebi, were captured, and the following year Bayezid died in captivity. One of the main reasons for the Ottoman defeat was due to the desertion of Turkic and Tartar cavalry from Anatolia, which, before the beginning of the battle, defected to Timur's side, unhappy with Bayezid's rule and due to a sense of camaraderie with the forces of Timur. This allowed Timur's forces to break Bayezid's left wing and encircle his center, where the Sultan was located with his janissaries. On the right wing, there were Bayezid's vassals, among whom were Đurađ Branković and his brother Grgur, Stefan's brother Vuk, and Stefan himself, who was also a commander of the right wing. He fought bravely, which caused admiration from Timur. Prince Stefan and his knights, who, according to chronicler Duka and several contemporaries, were 5000 heavily armed men with spears, including cavalry, repeatedly attacked the enemy lines to rescue his master, Bayezid I, from hostile environments. He eventually succeeded in it, but Bayezid refused to withdraw, after which Stefan took with him his son Süleyman Çelebi and started to retreat towards Bursa under constant attacks of the hordes of Tatars. Byzantine chronicler Laonikos Chalkokondyles states that "the Serbs fought as real heroes, each worthy of praise", adding that "They attacked Tatars with great vigor, crushing them hard in the fight", and about the Serbian struggle, there is evidence toponym Srb-ghazi – Serbian winner, near Ankara.
During the fight, Prince Stefan was wounded, while Gregory Branković was captured and later released. In the meantime, Bayezid was captured with his soldiers, his son Musa, and his harem, where Stefan's sister, Olivera, was.
One of the reasons Stefan honored his vassal obligations to Bayezid was the desire to keep the Serbian-Ottoman Alliance strong under looming Hungarian pressure. Another was that Stefan's sister, Olivera, was married to the Sultan. She was captured in the battle and later released through an agreement that was signed between Stefan and Timur. It seems that a ransom was not paid, thanks to the great respect that Timur had for Olivera's brother Stefan, and she returned to Serbia, and a little later she settled permanently in Stefan's castle, in Belgrade. It is interesting to note that a group of imprisoned Serbs was taken to Samarkand, where they were employed on construction works. On the other hand, Timur's forces had already left Asia Minor in 1403, and Timur himself died in early 1405, during his expedition to China. In the Ottoman Empire, Bayezid's capture and then his death brought on a civil war between his sons for the throne, known as the Ottoman Interregnum.
Stay at Constantinople
From Bursa, Stefan and his brother Vuk Lazarević went to Constantinople, which was relieved after several years of Ottoman blockade. John VII Palaiologos awarded Stefan in August 1402 the high Byzantine title of Despot, which in the Byzantine hierarchy was just beneath the Imperial. In addition, Stefan betrothed Helen Gattilusio, the daughter of Genoese master of Lesbos Francesco II Gattilusio.While the Lazarević brothers were in Constantinople, the Branković family was making their moves on the Lazarević. Đurađ Branković was imprisoned at the city dungeon on his return to Constantinople. The reason for this is unknown, and many later chroniclers, such as Mavro Orbini, claim that Đurađ was planning to join Bayezid I's son Süleyman, who established his rule in the European part of the Ottoman Empire. This is probably true, as Đurađ, after escaping from prison in September, went to Süleyman and asked him for military aid against Lazarević.
Stefan's return to Serbia was thwarted due to Ottoman hostility; part of the returning Serbian troops were killed on their way home near Adrianople. The two brothers and about 260 remaining soldiers embarked for Serbia, with a short stay in Lesbos. Their first stop was Zeta, ruled by Đurađ II Balšić, the husband of Stefan's sister Jelena Lazarević. Đurađ II received them at his capital in Ulcinj, after which Stefan began organizing the army for a confrontation with the Branković. Stefan's mother gathered an army in Serbia, while at the same time, Branković and Ottoman troops took control of roads in Kosovo to prevent the return of Stefan.
Despot Stefan Lazarević
Battle of Tripolje
In late October, Stefan's army marched from Stari Bar across Balšić's Zeta and some Venetian holdings, from and then through Skadar to Kosovo. Avoiding the main roads controlled by Đurađ Branković and his allies, Stefan's forces arrived at Gračanica on 21 November near Tripolje. In the following battle, the forces of Branković, strengthened by Ottoman detachments, were defeated.Stephen broke his army in two, with orders sent by his mother, before the battle, and his opponents did the same. Most of the troops were placed under the command of his brother Vuk, who directed them against the forces commanded by Đurađ Branković, while he, with a smaller part of the army, attacked the Ottomans. Forces under his command had won a victory, but the biggest significance in the battle was that of Uglješa Vlatković. He was still an Ottoman vassal, but he reported to Stefan with their war plan, and during the battle joined his ranks. As a reward for this, Stefan gave him authority over Vranje, Inogoštem, and Preševo, which had previously belonged to his father. Lazarević brothers then went to Novo Brdo, and came into a verbal conflict. The despot's younger brother was criticized for ignorance of war casualties and his weak leadership skills, because the bulk of the forces Vuk led were badly maimed by Đurađ Branković's troops.
Victory in the Battle of Tripolje enabled Stefan to regain his throne and influence in Serbia, which was further strengthened in the coming years. However, the fight with Branković had not ended, and in a sense, was further complicated by the conflict that arose between Stefan and Vuk. His younger brother, in the summer of 1403, left Serbia and headed to Süleyman to ask him for help and force his older brother to cede part of the state administration. He was told to stop by their mother, who followed him, and seemingly managed to reconcile the brothers.
In 1403, Süleyman was in Gallipoli negotiating with several Christian states in the Balkans to secure an agreement with them and start an offensive against his brothers in Asia Minor. The terms of the agreement were that Byzantium was to cease being a vassal of the Ottomans, while in the territorial sense, regaining Thessaloniki and several cities on the coast of the Bosphorus and the Black Sea. One of the provisions of this contract referred to Stefan, although he probably did not take part in its conclusion. Stefan kept his former possessions but still had to pay tribute and send the Sultan support militarily, although he was not obliged to lead them himself.
Alliance with Sigismund
The changed conditions in Southeast Europe in the early fifteenth century led to a convergence of Despot Stefan and Hungarian king Sigismund. Stefan needed a strong ally who could help him get rid of Ottoman domination, but also stay on the throne of Serbia, due to an open conflict with Đurađ Branković, who enjoyed the support of Süleyman. On the other hand, the Kingdom of Hungary was in a deep internal crisis, and, until 1403, Sigismund was unable to return to the country and regain complete control. It was, therefore, necessary for him to rely on a secure southern border while simultaneously trying to provide a strong base for the resistance against the Ottomans and eventually expand to the south.The negotiations were most likely initiated by King Sigismund, as he sent emissaries to Stefan, among whom was his close associate of Florentine origin, Filippo Scolari. The objective of this delegation had been successful and led to the conclusion of an agreement between the two rulers in late 1403 or early 1404. Under its provisions, Stefan accepted vassal relations to Sigismund and received from him Mačva and Belgrade. With these new lands, including the Golubac Fortress, Stefan had strengthened his northern border, now delineated by the Sava and Danube rivers.
Settling the situation in Serbia and clashes in Zeta
Emboldened by his new Hungarian alliance, Stefan attacked the lands of Branković around the river Sitnica, and then began to attack the areas under Ottoman control, in which it might have had Hungarian military support as well. It is not known exactly from which cities and regions they were taken, but they were likely in the south-eastern part of Serbia. After these successes, he was able to make a peace deal with Branković, and at the same time, through his mother's influence, not have Süleyman involved in retribution against Stefan's gains.Immediately after the takeover of Belgrade, Stefan started the reconstruction of its fortifications, which were destroyed by the Ottomans in 1397. In addition, he began work on the all-around development of the city, which was carried out by the end of his reign, but in the beginning of 1405, Stefan named Belgrade the capital of Serbia, which until then was in Kruševac. His mother Milica's death was a major blow to the Despotate's immediate diplomacy with various Serbian and Ottoman lords. Nevertheless, the situation in the Despotate has stabilized as the state started to grow in prosperity, evidenced by the charter for Borač, issued from Dubrovnik. Stefan negotiated with Ragusa during the year and managed to reinstate many deals Ragusa had with previous Serbian autocrats.
At the beginning of 1405, a rebellion broke out among the local population in Skadar against the Venetian rule. The reason for it lay in the high-handed fashion of Venetian policies in the region, which were manifested in impounding properties, which was then shared with Venetian supporters, denying the rights of Orthodox churches in the area under the supreme authority of Venice. Stefan's brother-in-law, the deceased Đurađ II, set some of these things in motion, as he led diplomacy to be on good terms with Venice, selling it cities such as Skadar. His widow, Jelena Lazarević, who was a very shrewd statesman and scholar, did not like Đurađ II's politics, so she managed to influence her son, Balša III, to start asking for rights for Orthodox monasteries, triggering the First Scutari War. As Balša had no significant support, he turned to Stefan, thus bringing Zeta into Serbia's direct and close area of influence once again. Stefan was not able to involve himself directly in this conflict, though he did serve as a mediating party on a few occasions. A peace deal was signed in 1408, but this peace would be temporarily broken several times in the following decade, leading up to a continuation of the struggle for Pomorje.
Order of the Dragon
In December 1408, Hungarian King Sigismund founded the Order of the Dragon. Stefan Lazarević is the first knight named, in the founding charter of 1408, as Stephanus Despoth, dominus Serbiae.The rebellion of brother Vuk
By late 1408, Stefan and Vuk seemed to have restarted their rivalry, and with their mother Milica's death a few years earlier, conflict seemed more certain than ever. Stefan has rejected Vuk's demand for his land. In turn, Vuk went to Süleyman's court and asked him for military assistance against Stefan, recognizing his suzerainty in advance.At the beginning of 1409, Vuk marched into Stefan's lands with an overwhelming force of Ottoman troops. Though the amount of support Vuk got from Süleyman was a surprise, the quick reaction of Stefan's ally Philip de Skolarisa indicates that Stefan and Sigismund were aware of Vuk's plans beforehand. The bulk of the conflict was focused in Kosovo. Priština has especially suffered during this war, as attested by the many letters that arrived in Dubrovnik from its citizens. Ragusans were instructed to declare neutrality and approach situations with diplomacy, though they were also encouraged not to harm any of Stefan's men, and actively partake in fortress defense efforts.
By the time summer came, Stefan's army was suppressed, as he was forced to retreat to the well-fortified Belgrade, denying submission to Süleyman, but being forced to deal with Vuk. The two negotiated, and thus, practically, Stefan ceded the southeastern part of his lands to Vuk. Vuk ruled these lands on his own, while being an Ottoman vassal - just like Đurađ Branković to his west.
Civil war between Musa and Süleyman
As both conflicted with Süleyman, Stefan and Musa Çelebi became natural allies, thus formalizing an alliance. Süleyman's absence from Rumelia triggered a swift offensive by Musa and his ally Stefan, capturing Gallipoli and defeating beglerbeg Sinan at Yambol, Süleyman's seat. These victories enabled Musa to also acquire an alliance with Stefan's Serbian opponents — Đurađ Branković and his own brother Vuk.These events led Süleyman to return to Rumelia. He was supported by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, who helped Süleyman transport his troops quickly. This news emboldened Vuk and Đurađ Branković, who switched sides and joined Süleyman's camp.
Stefan and Musa tried to prevent the crossing of Süleyman's forces in Europe, with an attack on the fleet that was carrying them. Around Galatia, they managed to destroy some of the ships, but Süleyman's forces still managed to cross the Bosporus Strait.
The great battle between the two sons of Bayezid occurred on 15. June in the Battle of Kosmidion, on the banks of the Golden Horn, in front of the Byzantine land walls of Constantinople. Musa's forces suffered a defeat, and when he left the battlefield, the Despot Stefan pulled back from the battle. The Byzantine Emperor, however, sent ships to evacuate Stefan and his soldiers to Constantinople, despite their different positions in this particular conflict.
In the meantime, Süleyman sent Vuk Lazarević and Lazar Branković to hasten for Serbia and take over Stefan's domain. However, they both had the misfortune to come across Musa's remnant forces and get captured in Philippopolis. Vuk Lazarević was immediately executed for his betrayal, and Musa tried to blackmail Đurađ Branković into allying with him, but to no avail.
The two Osman rivals clashed again on July 11 at Edirne, where Musa was defeated once again. During the battle, Musa ordered Lazar's execution. Lazar's body was found after the battle, while Đurađ and Süleyman's forces were looting the deceased soldiers.
Meanwhile, Stefan was rushing for Serbia once again, reaching Golubac through the Black Sea in August. Stefan quickly seized Vuk's territory. Another defeat at Serdica marked the end of Süleyman's fight, as he was captured after trying to escape Edirne towards Constantinople. Musa was now the undisputed Osman ruler of Rumelia, and former subjects of Süleyman acknowledged his supremacy, including Đurađ Branković. The relationship between Đurađ and Musa was very uneasy, as Đurađ was enraged over his brother's summary execution. Đurađ has entered into negotiations with Stefan, as his appetite for Ottoman appeasement was running dry. At the same time, Musa had refused to send Vuk's remains to Stefan, taken as a great insult by the Despot. He immediately started raiding Ottoman territory until Musa offered negotiations.
Strengthening of the Despotate
Cooperation between Sigismund I and Stefan continued through 1411, when the Serbian Despot, in July, stayed in Buda, accompanied by his nobles. On that occasion, there was a strengthening of mutual relations, but the text of the agreement and its provisions have not been preserved. His biographer says that on that occasion Stefan fell true love with the West, and Jovana Kalić said that Stefan since then often went to Buda and not be returned without a new property, which he lavishly endowed the ruler of Hungary, adding that from Hungarian sources that time proclaim that the Serbian Despot with their country subverted the supremacy of the Hungarian king. Stefan received from Sigismund lands in former Hungary, which included the villages, towns, and mines, which were in Szatmár County, Bihar County, Szabolcs County and Torontál County. By late summer, Sigismund I had made peace with the King of Bosnia, Ostoja of Bosnia|Ostoja] and other nobles from Bosnia, which ended the long-term conflicts. Under his control remained the Usora area, while Srebrnica, probably during that year, transferred to Despot Stefan. At the end of the year, Stefan's sister and the widow of Đurađ II Kotromanić Balšić, Jelena, remarried to Sandalj Hranić Kosača after his peace with Sigismund I. In May next year, Stefan was with a large entourage back in Buda. He attended the great council of the European aristocracy, in which there was a reconciliation between Sigismund I and the Polish king Vladislav II, and next to him at the council appeared nobles and the king of Bosnia, as well as several other Balkan rulers and nobles.At the same time, Stefan's sister, Mara, met with him on behalf of her son Đurađ, who led his forces in the army of Musa, trying to fix the relations between them, in which she succeeded. Musa forces in the fall of 1411, attacked the town of Selimvria on the Sea of Marmara near Constantinople, in which was the son of Süleyman, Orhan, was the candidate of Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos for the Ottoman throne. During the siege, Musa tried to assassinate Đurađ, but he managed to save himself by escaping to the town of Selimvria with his troops. Then, via Thessaloniki, he was back in Serbia and reconciled with his uncle Stefan, which ended the decade-long rivalry between the two most powerful Serbian noble families. As Stefan had no sons of his own, he appointed Đurađ as his successor, and in turn, Đurađ accepted Stefan's suzerainty and started closely cooperating with the Despot.
Final war against Musa
A broad coalition was formed against Musa, in which the Ottoman commanders from some parts of the Balkans, and his only remaining brother, Mehmed I, who ruled part of the former Bayezid Asian countries, joined them. His first attempt to cross into Europe in 1411 was finished with defeat, but they kept fighting on other fronts, so that by the end of that year, Stefan, Skopje and Kyustendil Beylerbey's attacked the domains of Musa. Winter weather and swollen river Marica have prevented the connection of their and Mehmed I's forces over the Sea area. The answer to this attack came in early 1412 when Musa from around Serdica and Čemernik moved over in the Vranje area and looted it, while Uglješa Vlatković, who ruled that part of the Serbian Despotate, barely saved himself. His forces then continued with a march to Novo Brdo, but the news of the arrival of Despot Stefan triggered his retreat towards Thessaly.The new campaign Musa began in 1413, with an attack on Hamza bey, who held the Svrljig and Soko Grad. He was captured and executed, and Musa's forces then occupied Bovan and Lipovac, as well as many other towns in the Morava Valley, whose commander was killed heroically, providing great resistance. In addition, his troops, according to reports in March that were sent from Novo Brdo to Dubrovnik, devastated Toplica and Braničevo.
During this period, Despot Stefan joined his forces with Sigismund and Sandalj Hranić Kosača. His forces were met with Mehmed I's commanders near Kruševac, and after the agreement, there was a merger of their armies, which were sent to the south. At the mouth of the Toplica river at Dobrič, near Koprijan, they were joined by some Musa supporters, including the commander of the army Evrenos, after which they continued traveling to Ovče Polje. Stefan, Sandalj Hranić Kosača, and Jovan Morović at Skopska Crna Gora leave troops and return to Serbia, and command of them took Đurađ Branković.
The final and deciding clash of the two remaining Osman brothers was the Battle of Çamurlu. Musa forces managed to suppress the Serbian army at the first phase of fighting, but Đurađ's voivode Radič Postupović attacked from the flank,, managing to break enemy lines, bringing the victory to the allied troops. During the withdrawal from the battle, Musa was captured and killed on the river Iskar, marking the end of the Ottoman Interregnum.
Mehmed I was now the undisputed heir of Bayezid the Thunderbolt. He bestowed Stefan and Đurađ with rich gifts and the Znepolje and Kurvingrad fortresses.
Period of peace
The end of the civil war between the sons of Bayezid I was the beginning of many years of peace in Serbia, which enabled further economic and cultural development. Stefan had not intervened militarily in conflicts in the coastal area, as well as in the wars that swept Bosnia in 1413 and brought the Ottomans into it. Sigismund, in 1415, launched two counter-offensives in Bosnia, while the first, earlier this year, failed to oust the Ottomans, and the second, mid-year, ended as a complete disaster. Hungarian forces in July were broken at Lašva, and much of the nobility was captured and taken to Zvečan. They later managed to free themselves through negotiation and purchase, in which Stefan participated, who brokered the release of Jovan Morović.The situation in Bosnia was further complicated by the murder of Prince Pavle Radenović in late August 1415, behind which stood King Ostoja and Sandalj Hranić Kosača, which led to clashes between Pavlović and Kosača. In addition, the Ottoman presence and the failures of the Hungarian army led the nobility in Bosnia to turn against Sigismund, and one consequence was the decision of the Bosnian Parliament to take Srebrenica from Stefan, but because of the situation, that was not possible to implement.
At this time, there was a great ecclesiastical council in Constance on Lake Constance, which lasted from 1414 to 1418 and gathered a great number of ecclesiastical and secular nobility from Catholic countries. Parliament dealt with the so-called Western Schism and the fate of Jan Hus, who was eventually put to death, which led to the Hussite Wars. In addition, it is pointed out that the threat of the Ottomans, among the participants of Parliament, was also a mission of the Serbian Despot, and it is not impossible that he went there.
The Despot, in that period, even though he was a vassal of the Ottoman sultans, did not forsake his efforts to rid himself of the Ottoman domination, as evidenced by the letters he wrote to his subordinates in Hungary, the Byzantines, and deputies in the Republic of Venice. He stated that in the case of the creation of a broader anti-Ottoman coalition, Serbia would join it. During the period of peace, Stefan had finished his monumental endowment, Resava, with today's Despotovac. Its construction began in 1407 but was repeatedly interrupted by outbursts of the Ottoman Empire, and was finished in 1418.
Stefan was a great patron of art and culture, providing support and shelter to scholars from Serbia and exiles from surrounding countries occupied by the Ottomans. He was educated at his parents' home, and he spoke and wrote Serbo-Slavic; he could speak Greek and was familiar with Latin. Under his rule, he issued the Code of Mines in 1412 in Novo Brdo, the economic center of Serbia.
He was an author, and his main works include Slovo ljubve, which he dedicated to his brother Vuk, and Natpis na mramornom stubu na Kosovo.
Some works he wrote during his reign have been preserved. During his reign, a rich transcribing activity – The Transcription School of Resava – was developed in his foundation, the Manasija Monastery. More Christian works, and capital works of an ancient civilization, were transcribed there than in all times preceding the Despot's rule.
During the short time the life of the founder and monastery coincided, so much was achieved in Resava that it remained an important and outstanding monument in the history of Serbian and Slavic culture in general. It was there that Bulgarian-born Constantine the Philosopher, a reputable "Serbian teacher", translator, and historian, established the famous orthographic school of Resava to correct errors in the ecclesiastical literature incurred by numerous translations and incorrect transcriptions, and to thoroughly change the previous orthography.
Constantine's essay on how Slavic books should be written recommended a very complicated orthography that subsequently many authors adopted and used for a long time. Regardless of subsequent criticism of this endeavor, the very fact that in Serbia in the 15th century, an essay was written on orthography and its rules is very important. Until the very end of the 17th century, documents confirm the outstanding reputation of translations and transcripts originating from the Resava School.
Death
Like most of the rulers and noblemen of those times, Despot Stefan loved and used to saddle his horse often and ride with his escort to hunt in nearby villages. On one of the returns from the castle in Belgrade Fortress, finding himself near the place known as Glava, or Glavica, at Mt. Kosmaj, Despot stopped his escort to ride out to hunt. As accustomed, he stretched his hand forward to let the hawk onto it, but his body did not move. The whole escort noticed the way his body was leaning from one side to the other, becoming aware that something unusual was happening. Everybody knew his imposing pose on a horse, and they all doubtfully watched him fall to the ground helplessly. According to Constantine the Philosopher, his sudden death on 19 July 1427 was indicated by a mystic storm that made the sky from Belgrade turn black, and the thunder covered his soft, last words, "Get George, get George!"The death of Despot was experienced as the Last Judgement, a disaster, as Judgement Day among people. Dreading future troubles, the whole state grieved for their ruler, whom they knew from the beginning was "the chosen messenger of the new age". The death announced the hardest period in the history of the Serbian state and people, represented in the destruction of the state's Despot and loss of state identity. The old Byzantine-South Slavonic prophecies are usually interpreted as Ishmaelite, that is, Muslim, conquests as a result of Christian sins. For the Orthodox Christians, in the 15th century, this topos became especially alluring, since it corresponded to the idea of "the end of the world" in the year 7000 "from the creation of the world", according to the Byzantine calendar.
To save the memory of the moment of the passing of the favorite and honored ruler, a stone marker was erected at the place where Despot fell off the horse. Saying farewell to their master, his closest associates, who were escorting him at the moment of the accident, built a monument of marble stone, leaving messages of loyalty and respect. These inscriptions show the monument was built by Đurađ Zubrović, a nobleman from the territory, to which the hamlet Glava belonged, as well as the knight from Despot's escort. Despots Stephanos was buried at Resava.
Many researchers believe that the cause of death of the despot Stefan was a stroke or a heart attack, while some doubt this version, looking for the cause in a conspiracy using the statements of his biographer Constantine the Philosopher "When he was in a place called Glavica, having lunch he went out to hunt, and while he was still hunting...". These researchers suspect that the despot Stefan was poisoned. He probably became more pro-Western than he should have been. From the Serbian perspective, there was a difference between the Eastern and Western world, with Serbia situated somewhere between the two.
Veneration
The Serbian Orthodox Church canonized Despot Stefan on August 1, 1927, the 500th anniversary of his death, under the name Saint Despot Stefan of Serbia, although he is more commonly referred to as Saint Stefan the Tall. He is commemorated on August 1 alongside his mother, Saint Eugenia. A reliquary which is believed to contain his remains is housed in the Koporin monastery and is opened twice a year, on August 1, the feast of Saint Despot Stefan and August 15, the feast of the translation of the relics of Saint Stephen, which is the monastery's slava.In 2023, Saint Despot Stefan was chosen to be the patron saint of the Serbian Armed Forces, with his feast becoming the army's slava.
Literary works
Apart from the biographical notes in charters and especially in the Code on The Mine Novo Brdo, Stefan Lazarević wrote three literary works:The Grave Sobbing for prince Lazar The Inscription on the Kosovo Marble Column A Homage to Love, a poetic epistle to his brother Vuk- Law on Mines
- Translation of a Greek work titled "On Times Future"
Titles
- "Lord of all the Serbs and Podunavlje", inherited through his father.
- "Despot of the Kingdom of Rascia and Lord of Serbia". After 1402.
- "Despot, Lord of Rascia", in the founding charter of the Order of the Dragon. He was the first on the list.
- "Despot, Lord of all Serbs and the Maritime".