Shravasti
Shravasti is a town in Shravasti district in Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It was the capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Kosala where the Buddha lived most after his enlightenment. It is near the Rapti river in the northeastern part of Uttar Pradesh India, close to the Nepalese border.
Shravasti is one of the most revered sites in Buddhism. It is believed to be where the Buddha taught many of his Suttas, converted many of his famous disciples, and performed his "Sravasti miracles" – "great miracle" and "twin miracle" – a subject of numerous historic reliefs, statues and literature in Buddhism. Sravasti is also important to Hinduism and Jainism. The earliest manuscripts of both mention it and weave some of their legends in Sravasti. Archaeological excavations of the Sravasti site have unearthed numerous artworks and monuments related to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.
Shravasti, as a capital, was at the junction of three major trading routes in ancient India, connecting it to the different regions of the Indian subcontinent. Inscribed slabs and statues found at and near Sravasti suggest it was an active Buddhist site and prosperous area from the time of the Buddha through at least the 12th-century CE. It was destroyed and covered with mounds sometime in or after the 13th-century, chronologically marking the arrival and establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Excavations between 1986 and 1996, led by Japanese archaeologists, suggest that the site continued to be built up and expanded through the 1st millennium. Thereafter, the discovery of numerous charcoal remains and burnt soil suggests that a large portion of the site was burnt down and damaged, while other parts went into disuse and suffered the effects of erosion.
The Shravasti site was rediscovered by a team of British and Indian archaeologists in late 19th-century. It has attracted waves of systematic excavations from the late 19th-century through the 1990s. It is now a small town, a center of heritage tourism and religious pilgrimage by Buddhists from around the world.
Location
Shravasti is located in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, now in Shravasti district of Uttar Pradesh. This is a region of many rivers and rivulets. Sravasti is on the banks of West Rapti river – now a seasonal river that typically dries up in summer. It is about of Gonda railway and bus hub, and about north-east of Lucknow airport. It is connected to India's highway network with NH 927, 730 and 330.Flights at Shravasti Airport will resume from 15 July 2025.
Nomenclature
Shravasti is also referred to as Saheth-Maheth, or sometimes just Sahet-Mahet, in archaeological and historical scholarship. These are two sites separated by less than 2 kilometers. Saheth is smaller and contains the Jetavana monuments. Maheth refers to the walled complex within a much damaged ancient mud fort. The site is most known for its Buddhist monuments, though significant important ruins of old Hindu and Jain temples along with artwork have also been found here. Adjacent to Maheth, to its northwest, are also medieval era Islamic tombs.The word Shravasti is rooted in Sanskrit and the Hindu tradition. As per Bhagavata Purana this city was built by a king called Shravasta who descended from the Ikshvaku dynasty which originated from the legendary Vaivasvata Manu. In Pali and Buddhist literature, it is called Savatthi. Early Buddhist literature paint Savatthi as a mega-urban center in the time of the Buddha. The 5th-century Buddhist commentator and philosopher Buddhaghosa, living some 900 years after the death of the Buddha, states that there were 5.7 million residents in Savatthi. This is implausible and likely a gross exaggeration based on the Buddhist oral traditions. Yet, it also reflects a community memory of Shravasti as a prosperous large capital. In Ajivika and Jaina literature, the same Kosala capital is called Saravana, Kunalnagari and Chandrikapuri. As Saravana, this site is considered the birthplace of Gosala Mankhaliputta.
History
The ancient Shravasti is found in the literature of all major Indian religions. Of these, the Buddhist sources are most extensive. It is also described in more historical records such as those left by the Chinese pilgrims to India.Buddhist sources
Shravasti is the location where the Buddha gave most of his talks, later remembered by his followers and centuries later written down as Suttas. According to Woodward, 871 suttas in the four Nikayas of Buddhist canons, are based in Shravasti. These texts add that the Buddha spent twenty-five varshas in Shravasti. Scholars such as Rhys Davids state that this could mean two things. Either the Buddha primarily lived in Shravasti after his enlightenment, or that the oral tradition in early Buddhism was "systematized in Shravasti". Malalasekera, a historian of Buddhism, considers the former more likely. Either way, Shravasti is the key site where almost all the remembered teachings of the Buddha were either heard or compiled, and centuries later were recorded as the Pali canon elsewhere.Shravasti is also mentioned as the capital and home of king Prasenajit – where the royal patron of the Buddha lived. It was also the home of Anathapindada – the richest early donor for the Buddha. Anathapindada is famous in the Buddhist literature as the one who offered his Jetavana grove and residences.
In the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is remembered for having performed miracles, of which two are particularly popular in reliefs found in its stupas, artwork and literature. The Buddha is believed to have performed the Mahapratiharya or the "great miracle", and the Yamakapratiharya or the "twin miracle" in Shravasti. These are called the "Sravasti miracles".
Jaina sources
Śrāvasti is often mentioned in Jaina sources. It is also called Chandrapuri, Savatthi, Savasti, Sharavati, Dharmapuri, Champakpuri, Pushkalavati, ''Kunalnagar, Chandrikapuri, and Ārya Kṣetra, because Jaina texts state that two of their Tirthankaras were born here millions of years ago, in prehistoric times – Sambhavanatha and Chandraprabha. Śrāvasti is also known as the capital city of Kunala's kingdom. Paumachariyam, the oldest Jaina version of the Ramayana, also mentions Śrāvasti to be the birthplace of Sambhavanatha. Ancient parts of Śrāvasti, which were also known as Sahet - Mahet, also had several grand temples and fortifications.Sambhavanatha is said to have had taken initiation, donated all his belongings, and broken his first fast in Śrāvasti after begging for alms from King Surendradatta. Munisuvrataswami, the 20th Tirthankara, visited Śrāvasti and initiated several members of the royal family. As per the Śvetāmbara Jaina text Jnatadharmakathah, Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, also visited Śrāvasti and inspired several lay-followers to accept initiation. Shantinatha, the 16th Tirthankara, also visited this town. Kapila, a Jaina ascetic, achieved nirvana at Śrāvasti. Jaina sources also mention it to be the kingdom of Lava and Kusha, the sons of Rama.
According to Jaina texts, Mahavira visited Śrāvasti many times and spent his 10th varsha here before attaining omniscience. He was hosted by a wealthy merchant named Nandinipriya. Mahavira also faced numerous ordeals during his stay. Bṛhaḍkalpa Sutra, a Śvetāmbara Jaina text, also mentions the installation of several jeevit-swami idols of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara. Further, Śrāvasti is the place of the bitter arguments and meeting between Mahavira, and Gosala Mankhaliputta – the founder of Ajivikas and a rival. Mahavira had several disciples in Śrāvasti. After Mahavira attained omniscience, Gosala Mankhaliputta attacked him using his tejoleśyā here. After a 6-month long bleeding episode, Mahavira was treated by Revathi Śrāvikā who used Bijorā Pāk medicine to cure him. It was also the birthplace of two of the 11 ganadharas of Mahavira and of Jamāli, Mahavira's son-in-law. Ancient Jaina scholars such as Maghavan and Keshi studied in Śrāvasti. At Śrāvasti, Jamāli created the first of the eight heretical sects by opposing tenets of Jainism as taught by Mahavira himself. The eighth heretical sect, Digambara sect, was created by Sivabhuti at Rathavirapur.
As described in the Jaina text Uttaradhyayana Sutra, the discussion between Keśiśramanācharya and Mahavira's first disciple, Gautama Swami, is said to have had taken place at Śrāvasti. This was the place where Upkeśa Gaccha was established by Keśiśramanācharya after he accepted Mahavira's conduct and became a white-clad monk along with all his disciples who were initially following Parshvanatha's conduct of brown-colored clothes. Moreover, the Pattavali described in the Kalpa Sūtra, states the existence of Śrāvastikā Śākhā, one of the four branches of the Veṣavāṭikgaṇa of the Jaina sangha. It had originated from Ācārya Kāmardhi, a disciple of Ācārya Suhastisuri who was himself a disciple of Ācārya Sthulabhadrasuri, belonging to the beginning of the 3rd century BCE. Apart from these scriptures, Śrāvasti is also mentioned in other Śvetāmbara Jaina scriptures such as Sthananga Sutra, Vyākhyāprajñapti, and Āvaśyaka Sūtra. It is also mentioned in the Ajit-Śānti Stava.
In the 9th and 10th century CE, several kings such as Mayurdhwaja, Hansadhwaja, Makardhwaja, Sudhadhwaja, and Suhyadhwaja of Śrāvasti patronized Jainism. Ācārya Jinaprabhasuri, in his Vividha Tirtha Kalpa confirms that a Jaina temple with an image of Sambhavanatha was renovated multiple times until it was finally completely desecrated during the reign of Alauddin Khilji. Despite numerous invasions, ruins of 17 temples survive. In their pilgrimage memoirs, Jaina monks Saubhagyavijaya and Vijayasagara describe it as an important site of pilgrimage for Jainas. Between 1975 and 1987, major restoration works under Ācārya Bhadrankarasuri, a Śvetāmbara Jaina monk, were performed and several temples and statues were restored for worshipping.
Currently, the birthplace of Sambhavanatha is under the care of Archaeological Survey of India where remains of several temples are found. It was rebuilt in the 12th century CE as its architecture features Iranian influence. 5 idols dating back to the 11th century CE were also found during excavations. A saptatrithi'' twin idol, with Tirthankaras in the Kayotsarga posture was also excavated. 24 Tirthankaras idols from different time periods were also excavated from the archaeological site. Out of these, 2 idols are dated back to the pre-Mauryan period, around 300 BCE.