Spanish grammar

Spanish is a grammatically inflected language, which means that many words are modified in small ways, usually at the end, according to their changing functions. Verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, person, and number. Nouns follow a two-gender system and are marked for number. Personal pronouns are inflected for person, number, gender, and a very reduced case system; the Spanish pronominal system represents a simplification of the ancestral Latin system.
[Image:Antonio de Nebrija Introductiones latinae 1550.jpg|thumb|130px|right|Frontispiece of the Grammatica Nebrissensis]
Spanish was the first of the European vernaculars to have a grammar treatise, Gramática de la lengua castellana, published in 1492 by the Andalusian philologist Antonio de Nebrija and presented to Queen Isabella of Castile at Salamanca.
The Real Academia Española traditionally dictates the normative rules of the Spanish language, as well as its orthography.
Differences between formal varieties of Peninsular and American Spanish are remarkably few, and someone who has learned the language in one area will generally have no difficulties of communication in the other; however, pronunciation does vary, as well as grammar and vocabulary.
Recently published comprehensive Spanish reference grammars in English include,, and.

Verbs

Every Spanish verb belongs to one of three form classes, characterized by the infinitive ending: -ar, -er, or -ir—sometimes called the first, second, and third conjugations, respectively.
A Spanish verb has nine indicative tenses with more-or-less direct English equivalents: the present tense, the preterite, the imperfect, the present perfect, the past perfect —also called the pluperfect—, the future, the future perfect, the conditional simple and the conditional perfect.
In most dialects, each tense has six potential forms, varying for first, second, or third person and for singular or plural number. In the second person, Spanish maintains the so-called "T–V distinction" between familiar and formal modes of address. The formal second-person pronouns take third-person verb forms.
The second-person familiar plural is expressed in most of Spain with the pronoun italic=yes and its characteristic verb forms, while in Latin American Spanish it merges with the formal second-person plural. Thus, italic=yes is used as both the formal and familiar second-person pronoun in Latin America.
In many areas of Latin America, the second-person familiar singular pronoun italic=yes is replaced by italic=yes, which frequently requires its own characteristic verb forms, especially in the present indicative, where the endings are italic=yes, italic=yes, and italic=yes for italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes verbs, respectively.
In the tables of paradigms below, the subject pronouns appear in parentheses.

Present indicative

The present indicative is used to express actions or states of being in a present time frame. For example:Soy alto.

Ella canta en el club.
Todos nosotros vivimos en un submarino amarillo. Son las diez y media.

	Singular	Plural
First person	hablo	hablamos
Second person familiar	hablas hablás/habláis	habláis
Second person formal	habla	hablan
Third person	habla	hablan

	Singular	Plural
First person	como	comemos
Second person familiar	comes comés/coméis	coméis
Second person formal	come	comen
Third person	come	comen

	Singular	Plural
First person	vivo	vivimos
Second person familiar	vives vivís	vivís
Second person formal	vive	viven
Third person	vive	viven

Past tenses

Spanish has a number of verb tenses used to express actions or states of being in a past time frame. The two that are "simple" in form are the preterite and the imperfect.

Preterite

The preterite is used to express actions or events that took place in the past, and which were instantaneous or are viewed as completed. For example:

Ella se murió ayer.
Pablo apagó las luces.
Yo me comí el arroz.
Te cortaste el pelo.

	Singular	Plural
First person	hablé	hablamos
Second person familiar	hablaste	hablasteis
Second person formal	habló	hablaron
Third person	habló	hablaron

	Singular	Plural
First person	comí	comimos
Second person familiar	comiste	comisteis
Second person formal	comió	comieron
Third person	comió	comieron

	Singular	Plural
First person	viví	vivimos
Second person familiar	viviste	vivisteis
Second person formal	vivió	vivieron
Third person	vivió	vivieron

Note that for italic=yes and italic=yes verbs, the first-person plural form is the same as that of the present indicative; and italic=yes and italic=yes verbs share the same set of endings.

Imperfect or "copretérito"

The imperfect expresses actions or states that are viewed as ongoing in the past. For example:

Yo era cómico en el pasado.
Usted comía mucho.
Ellos escuchaban la radio.

All three of the sentences above describe "non-instantaneous" actions that are viewed as continuing in the past. The characteristic in the first sentence and the action in the second were continuous, not instantaneous occurrences. In the third sentence, the speaker focuses on the action in progress, not on its beginning or end.

	Singular	Plural
First person	hablaba	hablábamos
Second person familiar	hablabas	hablabais
Second person formal	hablaba	hablaban
Third person	hablaba	hablaban

	Singular	Plural
First person	comía	comíamos
Second person familiar	comías	comíais
Second person formal	comía	comían
Third person	comía	comían

	Singular	Plural
First person	vivía	vivíamos
Second person familiar	vivías	vivíais
Second person formal	vivía	vivían
Third person	vivía	vivían

Note that for all verbs in the imperfect, the first- and third-person singular share the same form; and italic=yes and italic=yes verbs share the same set of endings.

Using preterite and imperfect together

The preterite and the imperfect can be combined in the same sentence to express the occurrence of an event in one clause during an action or state expressed in another clause. For example:

Ellos escuchaban la radio cuando oyeron un ruido afuera.
Yo estaba en mi cuarto cuando usted entró.
Era un día muy tranquilo cuando eso pasó.

In all three cases, an event or completed action interrupts an ongoing state or action. For example, in the second sentence, the speaker states that he was in his room when the other person "interrupted" that state by entering.

Present progressive and imperfect progressive

The present and imperfect progressive both are used to express ongoing, progressive action in the present and past, respectively. For example:

Estoy haciendo mi tarea.
Estamos estudiando.
Estaba escuchando la radio.
Él estaba limpiando su cuarto.

The present progressive is formed by first conjugating the verb italic=yes or italic=yes, depending on context, to agree with the subject, and then attaching a gerund of the verb that follows. The past progressive simply requires the italic=yes or italic=yes to be conjugated, depending on context, in imperfect, with respect to the subject.

Forming gerunds

To form the gerund of an italic=yes verb, replace the italic=yes of the infinitive with italic=yes;
e.g. italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes → italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes.
For italic=yes or italic=yes verbs, replace the italic=yes or italic=yes ending with italic=yes;
e.g. italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes → italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes.
In italic=yes verbs whose stem ends with a vowel, the italic=yes of the italic=yes ending is replaced by italic=yes: e.g. italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes → italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes.
In italic=yes verbs whose stem ends with italic=yes—such as italic=yes and italic=yes—the stem vowel italic=yes is raised to italic=yes, and this italic=yes merges with the italic=yes of the italic=yes ending; e.g. italic=yes, italic=yes → italic=yes, italic=yes.

Subjunctive

The subjunctive of a verb is used to express certain connotations in sentences such as a wish or desire, a demand, an emotion, uncertainty, or doubt.

Present subjunctive

Normally, a verb would be conjugated in the present indicative to indicate an event in the present frame of time.

Yo soy muy ambicioso.
Marta trae la comida.

If the sentence expresses a desire, demand, or emotion, or something similar, in the present tense, the subjunctive is used.

Quiero que seas muy ambicioso.
Me alegro de que Marta traiga la comida.
Es una lástima que llegues tarde.

The subjunctive is also used to convey doubt, denial, or uncertainty.

Busco un amigo que sea simpático.
No hay ningún autor que lo escriba.
Es posible que ella sepa mucho.
No parece que tengan mucho dinero.

In the first two examples, the ideally likable friend has not yet been found and remains an uncertainty, and authors "who write that" are not known to exist. In the third, possibility is not certainty, but rather a conjecture, and the last expresses clear doubt. Thus, subjunctive is used.
Some of the phrases and verbs that require sentences to have subjunctive formation include:

Dudar, negar, esperar, alegrarse de, temer, sentir, pedir, aconsejar, exigir, desear, querer, mandar
Es necesario que, conviene que, no parece que, es dudoso que, es probable que, no creo que, importa que, parece mentira que

Some phrases that require the indicative instead, because they express certainty, include:

Es verdad que, es obvio que, es seguro que, parece que, es evidente que, creo que

To form the first-person singular subjunctive, first take the present indicative first-person singular form of a verb. For example, the verbs hablar, comer, and vivir → Yo hablo, yo como, yo vivo. Then, replace the ending italic=yes with the "opposite ending". This is done in the following way: if the verb is an italic=yes or italic=yes verb such as comer, poder, vivir, or compartir, replace the ending italic=yes with an italic=yes: i.e., Yo como; yo puedo; yo vivo → Yo coma; yo pueda; yo viva. If the verb is an italic=yes verb such as hablar or caminar replace the ending italic=yes with an italic=yes: i.e., Yo hablo; yo camino → Yo hable, yo camine. This forms the first-person conjugation. The other conjugations work similarly, as follows:Yo → Yo hable; yo coma; yo vivaTú → Tú hables; tú comas; tú vivasÉl/Ella/Usted → Él hable; él coma; él vivaNosotros → Nosotros hablemos; nosotros comamos; nosotros vivamosVosotros → Vosotros habléis; vosotros comáis; vosotros viváisEllos/Ellas/Ustedes → ellos hablen; ellos coman; ellos vivan
Since the italic=yes forms are derived from italic=yes, the following would be expected :Vos → Vos hablés; vos comás; vos escribás
However, the Royal Spanish Academy, following Argentinian usage, recommends using the italic=yes forms:Vos → Vos hables; vos comas; vos escribas

Imperfect subjunctive

Today, the two forms of the imperfect subjunctive – for example, "hubiese" and "hubiera", from "haber" – are largely interchangeable.* The italic=yes form derives from the Latin pluperfect subjunctive, while the italic=yes form derives from the Latin pluperfect indicative. The use of one or the other is largely a matter of personal taste and dialect. Many only use the italic=yes forms in speech, but vary between the two in writing. Many may spontaneously use either, or even prefer the rarer italic=yes forms. The imperfect subjunctive is formed for basically the same reasons as the present subjunctive, but is used for other tenses and time frames.

Nouns

In Spanish, as in other Romance languages, all nouns belong to one of two genders, "masculine" or "feminine", and many adjectives change their form to agree in gender with the noun they modify. For most nouns that refer to persons, grammatical gender matches biological gender.

Adjectives

Spanish generally uses adjectives in a similar way to English and most other Indo-European languages. However, there are three key differences between English and Spanish adjectives.

In Spanish, adjectives usually go after the noun they modify. The exception is when the writer/speaker is being slightly emphatic, or even poetic, about a particular quality of an object.
* italic=yes could either mean that there are many red houses in the world but I wish to talk about the one that I happen to own, or that I have many houses but am referring to the red one. italic=yes = My house, which is red.
* italic=yes means that I am stressing how red my particular house is. italic=yes = My house, which is obviously red. Another way of thinking of it is that this makes the house red at declaration, whereas Spanish typically defines a house and makes it red later.
In Spanish, adjectives agree with what they refer to in terms of both plurality and grammatical gender. For example, italic=yes is feminine, so "the red cup" is italic=yes, but italic=yes is masculine, so "the red glass" is italic=yes.
In Spanish, it is perfectly normal to let an adjective stand in for a noun or pronoun—with no implication of condescension or rudeness. For example, italic=yes means "the tall ones" or "the tall men". italic=yes means "the big one" or "the big man".

Determiners

Spanish uses determiners in a similar way to English. The main difference is that they inflect for both number and gender. Common determiners include italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes.

Pronouns

Spanish pronouns fall into the same broad categories as English pronouns do: personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and possessive. The personal pronouns–those that vary in form according to whether they represent the first, second, or third grammatical person–include a variety of second-person forms that differ not only according to number, but also according to formality or the social relation between speakers. Additionally, these second-person forms vary according to geographical region. Because the form of a conjugated verb reflects the person and number of its subject, subject pronouns are usually omitted, except where they are felt to be needed for emphasis or disambiguation.

Adverbs

Spanish adverbs work much like their English counterparts, e.g. italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, etc. To form adverbs from adjectives, the adverbial suffix italic=yes is added to the feminine singular of the adjective, whether or not it differs from the masculine singular. Thus:

italic=yes → italic=yes → italic=yes
italic=yes → italic=yes → italic=yes
italic=yes → italic=yes
italic=yes → italic=yes
italic=yes → italic=yes

As in English, some adverbs are identical to their adjectival counterparts. Thus words such as italic=yes, italic=yes, and italic=yes can also mean "early" "slowly", and "deeply", respectively. However, adverbs are invariable, meaning they aren't amended for number or gender the way most adjectives are.
In series of consecutive adverbs that would each end in italic=yes on their own, the italic=yes is dropped from all but the final adverb, and the others are left as if they were adjectives in the feminine singular. Thus:

italic=yes = "quickly and easily"
italic=yes = "slowly, carefully, and skillfully"
italic=yes = "partially or completely"

There are also a wide variety of adverbial phrases in Spanish, such as italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, and italic=yes.
The adjectives italic=yes and italic=yes have irregular adverbial forms: italic=yes and italic=yes, respectively.
As with adjectives, the comparative of an adverb is formed by placing italic=yes or italic=yes before the adverb, in most cases. italic=yes is the comparative for both the adjective italic=yes and the adverb italic=yes, and italic=yes is the comparative for both italic=yes and italic=yes. Thus, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, etc. The superlative is formed by placing the neuter article italic=yes before the comparative, although it is generally used with an additional qualifier phrase such as italic=yes or italic=yes : italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, etc.

Prepositions

Spanish has a relatively large number of prepositions, and does not use postpositions. The following list is traditionally cited:
Recently, two new prepositions have been added: italic=yes and italic=yes, usually placed at the end to preserve the list.
This list includes two archaic prepositions, but leaves out two new Latinisms as well as a large number of very important compound prepositions.
Prepositions in Spanish do not change a verb's meaning as they do in English. For example, to translate "run out of water", "run up a bill", "run down a pedestrian", and "run in a thief" into Spanish requires completely different verbs, and not simply the use of italic=yes plus the corresponding Spanish preposition. This is more due to the nature of English phrasal verbs rather than an inherent function of Spanish verbs or prepositions.

Conjunctions

The Spanish conjunctions italic=yes and italic=yes alter their form in both spoken and written language to italic=yes and italic=yes respectively when followed by an identical vowel sound. Thus, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes, italic=yes.
The change does not take place before the italic=yes of a diphthong, as in italic=yes. Nor does the conjunction italic=yes change when initial in a question, as in italic=yes.
When the conjunction italic=yes appears between numerals, it was usually spelled with an accent mark, in order to distinguish it from zero ; thus, italic=yes in contrast to italic=yes. Nowadays only italic=yes is standard.

Syntax and syntactic variation

Order of constituents

Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is subject-verb-object ; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is more variable, with topicalization and focus being the primary factors in the selection of a particular order. Verb-subject-object, verb-object-subject, and object-verb-subject are also relatively common, while other orders are very uncommon outside of poetry.
Thus, to simply say, "My friend wrote the book", one would say :

italic=yes

Although bare VSO and VOS are somewhat rare in declarative independent clauses, they are quite common in sentences in which something other than the subject or direct object functions as the focus. For example:

italic=yes or italic=yes = "A few years ago, my friend wrote a book"
italic=yes or italic=yes = "Yesterday, my mother saw my friend and asked him about his book"

In many dependent clauses, the verb is placed before the subject to avoid placing the verb in final position:

italic=yes, but rarely italic=yes = "This is the book that my friend wrote"

A sentence in which the direct object is the topic or "theme", while the subject is part of the comment, or "rheme", often assumes OVS order. In this case the direct object noun phrase is supplemented with the appropriate direct object pronoun; for example:

italic=yes

Because subject pronouns are often dropped, one will often see sentences with a verb and direct object but no explicitly stated subject.
In questions, VSO is usual :

italic=yes = "Did my friend write the book?"

Yes/no questions, regardless of constituent order, are generally distinguished from declarative sentences by context and intonation.

Cleft sentences

A cleft sentence is one formed with the copular verb, plus a word that "cleaves" the sentence, plus a subordinate clause. They are often used to put emphasis on a part of the sentence. Here are some examples of English sentences and their cleft versions:

"I did it." → "It was I who did it" or more colloquially "It was me that did it."
"You will stop smoking through willpower." → "It is through willpower that you will stop smoking."

Spanish does not usually employ such a structure in simple sentences. The translations of sentences like these can be readily analyzed as being normal sentences containing relative pronouns. Spanish is capable of expressing such concepts without a special cleft structure thanks to its flexible word order.
For example, if we translate a cleft sentence such as "It was Juan who lost the keys", we get italic=yes Whereas the English sentence uses a special structure, the Spanish one does not. The verb italic=yes has no dummy subject, and the pronoun italic=yes is not a cleaver but a nominalising relative pronoun meaning "the one that". Provided we respect the pairings of "el que" and "las llaves", we can play with the word order of the Spanish sentence without affecting its structure – although each permutation would, to a native speaker, give a subtly different shading of emphasis.
For example, we can say italic=yes or italic=yes. As can be seen from the translations, if this word order is chosen, English stops using the cleft structure whilst in Spanish no words have changed.
Here are some examples of such sentences:

italic=yes = "It was John who lost the keys"
italic=yes = "It is only three days that you have left"
italic=yes = "It will be I who tells him"
italic=yes = lit. "There are few who come and stay"

Note that it is ungrammatical to try to use just italic=yes to cleave such sentences as in English, but using italic=yes in singular or italic=yes in plural is grammatical.

*italic=yes
italic=yes

When prepositions come into play, things become complicated. Structures unambiguously identifiable as cleft sentences are used. The verb italic=yes introduces the stressed element and then there is a nominaliser. Both of these are preceded by the relevant preposition. For example:

italic=yes = "It was me to whom he gave permission", lit. "It was to me to whom he gave permission"
italic=yes = "It is us for whom this was made", lit. "It is for us for whom this was made"
italic=yes = "That is why I did it", more literally: "It is because of that that I did it", or completely literally: "It is because of that because of which I did it"
italic=yes = "It is this way that it must be done", lit. "It is this way how it must be done"

This structure is quite wordy, and is therefore often avoided by not using a cleft sentence at all. Emphasis is conveyed just by word order and stressing with the voice :

italic=yes = "He gave permission to me"
italic=yes = "This was done for us"
italic=yes = "I did it because of that"
italic=yes = "It must be done this way"

In casual speech, the complex cleaving pronoun is often reduced to italic=yes, just as it is reduced to "that" in English.

italic=yes
italic=yes
italic=yes
italic=yes

In the singular, the subordinate clause can agree either with the relative pronoun or with the subject of the main sentence, though the latter is seldom used. However, in the plural, only agreement with the subject of the main sentence is acceptable. Therefore:
;Singular

italic=yes = "I was the one who drank it"
italic=yes
italic=yes = "I am the one who knows"
italic=yes =

;Plural

italic=yes = "We are the only ones who do not have even a cent to bet"
italic=yes = "You girls are the ones who know"

Clitic ''se''

Clitics are a necessary part of syntactic form and representation in Spanish. Defining a specific syntactic role of a clitic in Spanish is cumbersome, as they are used in a variety of ways. Syntactic approaches to this common element have attempted to find a universal way of handling them. For example, all languages are capable of having subjects, objects, and verbs, so a universal methodology to handling word order, whether SVO, VSO, or OSV, is imperative for a multilingual and universal syntactic representation system to work. As such, there has been great discussion and investigation in the literature for that particular word order element. Clitics, on the other hand, have been given relatively less thought and investigation, particularly an inquiry into an uncomplicated approach in their syntactic distribution. Clitics offer a myriad of functional roles depending upon the language in question, further complicating the situation.
Spanish is a diasporic language which also experiences diachronic variation. While Spanish is said to generally have flexible or "free" word order, others such as Pountain assert that the syntax is heavily influenced by topic and comment identification.

Historical approaches

The syntactic role of the clitic italic=yes and its forms in Spanish has undergone much debate within the research with no obvious conclusion. Part of the difficulty stems from the variable role italic=yes and its other forms play with regard to the contextual grammar. Some syntacticians have aptly termed the clitic italic=yes as "paradigmatic" in reference to the complexity and variance of italic=yes features and functions. It is utilized in a variety of Spanish grammar contexts, including the following forms: reflexive pronoun, reciprocal pronoun, replacive pronoun, intrinsic pronoun, "derivational" pronoun, and "stylistic" pronoun. Further, italic=yes is used in addition with certain intransitive verbs, in reflexive-passive constructions, and in impersonal constructions.
As a class, clitics have such a variety of grammatical functions that they are not always pronominal, anaphoric or related to verbal arguments. Syntactically, they are most often found in non-argument benefactive theta-roles, in formation of passive, in formation of middle voice, and with a completive meaning. They can take the form of either phrasal constituents or words with an independent syntactic structure.
Despite italic=yes being grammatically diverse in Spanish grammatical application, it does certain specific roles. Zagona, author of a comprehensive Spanish syntax textbook, has extensively outlined form and function in depth, stating that:

the only true subject clitic in Spanish is "impersonal" se "one".

The impersonal form is clearly defined as it does not double and uses only the third person singular verb form as in the impersonal form example here:
Zagona also notes that, generally, oblique phrases do not allow for a double clitic, yet some verbs of motion are formed with double clitics:
Imperatives in Spanish do not require the use of clitics, but when they are used, a specific word order must be followed. With an affirmative verb, the clitic succeeds the verb. However, in a negative command, word order alters in that the clitic precedes the verb. Another review of sentence positions of italic=yes in various grammatical constructions offers the following example, demonstrating imperative differences thus:
With continuous verbs, the clitic can precede the auxiliary verb or follow the participle, as in and :
The clitic cannot follow a past or passive participle, as in :
Specific issues arise in clitic use and syntactic representation in terms of animacy. The Spanish language does not explicitly demonstrate in its grammar whether an object, either direct or indirect, refers to an animate or inanimate object. Therefore, the use of two clitics is common, although not always required. In this way, clitics can be doubled or "redundant" when two instances occur within the same phrase. Double clitics are found in instances of phrases with both direct accusative case objects and indirect dative objects in this way:
Regarding clitic doubling in Spanish, Ordóñez has suggested a "cluster" versus "split" formation, weighing consideration of the double clitic as a single unit or a separable unit. The syntactic approach maintains a left-dislocation for the clitics while sustaining a separation from the verb. In the cluster model, both clitics are two adjacent constituents whereas the split model, one clitic has been split from the other, appearing higher on the syntactic tree. Both are still under the same c-command of the left branch but are no longer sisters to each other. Ordóñez suggests that when clitics are sisters, they may not even be considered constituents in the syntax. The hypothesis includes a requirement that a non-third person clitic is located higher on a tree than the third person clitic.
In fact, clitic climbing is a common feature in Romance languages with designation of clitics as unbound morphemes where the clitic "climbs" to adjoin the verb in a higher position. This widely discussed theory has involved raising of the clitic italic=yes as an unaccusative because of the lack of external argument in the grammar structure. The object clitic begins in the subject position of the verb, moving up to attach to the verb via adjunction on the left. Another theory is the "base-generation" which considers clitics to be affixes. However, both approaches fail when there is clitic doubling.

Recent approaches

As recently as 2021, Cuervo has suggested that, for clitic doubling, the solution is considering the dative clitic to be the head of an Applicative Phrase with care taken in identifying whether the form is proclitic or enclitic. Cuervo addresses the difference by positing the following: if the process is proclitic, there is climbing; if the process is enclitic, there is no climbing. Thus, the determining factor for syntactic presentation is the type of verbal phrase.
Bradley illustrates some inflexible constructions, mainly when two third-person pronouns are within the same sentence and the indirect object must be expressed via italic=yes:

italic=yes
already CL CL sent-presperf
"I have already sent it"

In such cases, one solution is to use the particle italic=yes followed by an infinitive verb when the clitic precedes an auxiliary verb, as in the example provided below:

italic=yes
CL go-1.pres. to go to bed
"We are going to bed"

The clitic is not attached to the infinitive verb; instead, it is in subject position. Grammatically, attachment to the verb occurs with a non-finite or a main conjugated verb. The clitic adjoins the verb and undergoes head movement to check its features.
Additional structures for direct and indirect objects have been suggested. Other views include the use of AgrS and AgrO for Spanish when clitics are involved. Daussá states that italic=yes can block features as it travels attached to the appropriate verb form from the feature geometry which alters the nodes.
Daussá’s realization of syntactic structure presents a solution for the paradigmatic issue of italic=yes using AgrO and AgrS. This model includes a Determiner Phrase that is nominative with verbal agreement in both person and number. Romain has also offered a thorough examination of the various theories, concluding that italic=yes is part of a Determiner Phrase. While there had been some postulation that clitics are heads of their own phrases, there has not been much support given to those claims.
Even more recently, Lewandowski has focused on one function in the use of italic=yes with reflexive verbs, the completive, wherein with specific verbs the clitic denotes a completion of an action. Lewandowski has proposed an interconnected functionality for the Spanish reflexive pronoun, representing this concept via a cluster map indicating semantic, pragmatic, and grammatical functions. His discussion has centered around the "polyfunctionality" of italic=yes and how best to syntactically handle this issue, perhaps by not separating the syntax from morphology. Another recent view is that there are two syntactic formations: first, that italic=yes is a probe for A-movement which results in a paradigmatic italic=yes and second, that non-paradigmatic italic=yes is represented by third person singular. This cross-referencing of syntax and morphology overlapping with a communicative stylistic approach has been suggested in the past.

Dialectal variations

Forms of address

The use of italic=yes and italic=yes as a polite form of address is universal. However, there are variations in informal address. italic=yes replaces italic=yes in part of Andalusia, the Canary Islands, and Latin America, except in the liturgical or poetic of styles. In some parts of Andalusia, the pronoun italic=yes is used with the standard italic=yes endings.
Depending on the region, Latin Americans may also replace the singular italic=yes with italic=yes or italic=yes. The choice of pronoun is a tricky issue and can even vary from village to village. Travellers are often advised to play it safe and call everyone italic=yes.
A feature of the speech of the Dominican Republic and other areas where syllable-final /s/ is completely silent is that there is no audible difference between the second- and third-person singular form of the verb. This leads to redundant pronoun use, for example, the tagging on of italic=yes to the ends of sentences, where other speakers would say italic=yes.

''Voseo''

italic=yes was used in medieval Castilian as a polite form, like the French italic=yes and the Italian italic=yes, and it used the same forms as italic=yes. This gave three levels of formality:

italic=yes
italic=yes
italic=yes

Whereas italic=yes was lost in standard Spanish, some dialects lost italic=yes, and began using italic=yes as the informal pronoun. The exact connotations of this practice, called italic=yes, depend on the dialect. In certain countries there may be socioeconomic implications. italic=yes uses the pronoun italic=yes for italic=yes but maintains italic=yes as an object pronoun and italic=yes and italic=yes as possessives.
In italic=yes, verbs corresponding to italic=yes in the present indicative, are formed from the second person plural. If the second person plural ends in áis or éis, the form for italic=yes drops the i:

Vosotros habláis – vos hablás
Vosotros tenéis – vos tenés

Similarly the verb ser has:

Vosotros sois – vos sos

If the second person plural ends in -ís, then the form for italic=yes is identical:

Vosotros vivís – vos vivís
Vosotros oís – vos oís
Vosotros huís – vos huís

In the imperative, the form for italic=yes is also derived from the second person plural. The latter ends always in -d. So for the form for italic=yes this d is removed, and if the verb has more than one syllable, an accent is added to the last vowel:

Tened – tené
Dad – da

The only exception to these rules is in the verb ir, which does not have an imperative form for vos and uses the analogous form of the verb andar, which has a similar meaning, and is regular:

Andad – andá

In the present subjunctive, the same rules as for the present indicative apply, though these forms coexist in Argentina with those for the pronoun tú:

Que vosotros digáis – que vos digás

Or:

Que tú digas – que vos digas

Other tenses always have the same form for vos as for tú.
Outside Argentina, other combinations are possible. For instance, people in Maracaibo may use standard italic=yes endings for italic=yes.

''Vosotros'' imperative: ''-ar'' for ''-ad''

In Spain, colloquially, the infinitive is used instead of the normative imperative for italic=yes. This is not accepted in the normative language.

italic=yes instead of italic=yes
italic=yes instead of italic=yes
italic=yes or italic=yes instead of italic=yes

Non-normative ''-s'' on ''tú'' form

A form used for centuries but never accepted normatively has an italic=yes ending in the second person singular of the preterite or simple past. For example, italic=yes instead of the normative italic=yes; italic=yes for italic=yes. That is the only instance in which the italic=yes form does not end in an italic=yes in the normative language.
Ladino has gone further with italic=yes.

Third-person object pronoun variation

The third-person direct-object and indirect-object pronouns exhibit variation from region to region, from one individual to another, and even within the language of single individuals. The Real Academia Española prefers an "etymological" usage, one in which the indirect object function is carried by italic=yes, and the direct object function is carried by italic=yes or italic=yes.
The Academy also condones the use of italic=yes as a direct object form for masculine, animate antecedents. Deviations from these approved usages are named italic=yes, and italic=yes and italic=yes. The object pronoun variation is studied in detail by.
Here are some examples for this:Leísmo: italic=yes. Normative: italic=yes or italic=yes depending on the gender of the object.Laísmo: italic=yes. Normative: italic=yes. The person who is told something is an indirect object in Spanish, and the substituting pronoun is the same for both genders.Loísmo: italic=yes. Normative: italic=yes. See above.

''Queísmo'' and ''dequeísmo''

Noun clauses in Spanish are typically introduced by the complementizer italic=yes, and such a noun clause may serve as the object of the preposition italic=yes, resulting in the sequence italic=yes in the standard language. This sequence, in turn, is often reduced colloquially to just italic=yes, and this reduction is called italic=yes.
Some speakers, by way of hypercorrection, insert italic=yes before italic=yes in contexts where it is not prescribed in standard grammar. This insertion of "extraneous" italic=yes before italic=yes — called italic=yes — is generally associated with less-educated speakers.