Slovincian grammar

Nouns

Masculine nouns

Ending in a consonant

Ending with ⟨-a⟩

Feminine nouns

With stem ending in an alternating consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending

With stem ending in a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending

Ending with ⟨-o⟩

Ending in a consonant

Neuter nouns

Ending with ⟨-o⟩ (⟨-ã⟩ or ⟨-ê⟩)

With stem ending in a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-é⟩ ending

Consonant alternations

• ⟨k⟩ || ⟨kj⟩ || ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
• ⟨g⟩ || ⟨gj⟩ || ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩
• ⟨zg⟩ || ⟨zgj⟩ || ⟨zdz⟩ || —
• ⟨ch⟩ || ⟨chj⟩ || ⟨sz⟩ || ⟨sz⟩
• ⟨gh⟩ || ⟨j⟩ || ⟨z⟩ or ⟨ż⟩ || —
• ⟨t⟩ || ⟨c⟩
• ⟨d⟩ || ⟨dz⟩
• ⟨n⟩ || ⟨nj⟩
• ⟨m⟩ || ⟨mj⟩
• ⟨p⟩ || ⟨pj⟩
• ⟨b⟩ || ⟨bj⟩
• ⟨f⟩ || ⟨fj⟩
• ⟨w⟩ || ⟨wj⟩
• ⟨r⟩ || ⟨rz⟩
• ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
• ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩
• ⟨c⟩ || ⟨cz⟩
• ⟨z⟩ || ⟨ż⟩

• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with:

1. the nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩:
2. : ˈmjêch > ˈmjêchji ;
3. the instrumental plural ending ⟨-y⟩:
4. : ˈftoch > ˈftochjy.

• In masculine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-a⟩ with the genitive singular ending ⟨-i⟩:
• : ˈslëga > ˈslëgji.
• In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-a⟩ with the genitive singular/nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩:
• : ˈmùcha > ˈmùchji.
• In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-o⟩ with the genitive singular ending ⟨-é⟩ and the locative singular ending ⟨-y⟩:
• : Szwétsko > Szvétskjé > Szwétskjy.
• In neuter nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with nominative ending ⟨-ô⟩ with the instrumental plural ending ⟨-y⟩. Only ⟨k⟩||⟨kj⟩ is attested:

• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with:

1. the nominative-accusative plural ending ⟨-i⟩ for three nouns:
2. : ˈchlôp ''ˈchlôpji ;
3. : ˈkop ˈknopji ;
4. : ˈmaszchôp > ˈmaszchôpji ;
5. the locative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩ ;
6. : ˈsnjég > ˈsnjêzê ;
7. the nominative plural ending ⟨-ë⟩;
8. : ˈsnjég > ˈsnjêzê ;
9. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩;
10. : ˈkwjat > kwjeˈcéch.

• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩+⟨-a⟩ with the dative and locative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩:
• : ˈopa > ˈopjê.
• In feminine nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with ending ⟨-a⟩ with:

1. the dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual ending ⟨-ˈê⟩ or ⟨ê⟩. Here ⟨gh⟩ can alternate with ⟨z⟩ as well as ⟨ż⟩:
2. : ˈrãka > ˈrãcê ;
3. : ˈmogha > ˈmozê or ˈmożê ;
4. : ˈrejgha > ˈrejzê or ˈrejżê ;
5. : ˈrózga > ˈrózdzê ;
6. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩:
7. : ˈborzda > ˈbarzdzéch.

• In neuter nouns' stem ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with ending ⟨-ô⟩ with:

1. the locative singular/nominative-accusative dual ending ⟨-ê⟩;
2. : ˈlatô > ˈlêcê ;
3. the locative plural ending ⟨-éch⟩:
4. : ˈgnjozdô > ˈgnjozdzéch.

• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩:
• : ˈczlôwjek > ˈczlôwjecê ;
• : kaˈmrot > kaˈmrocê.
• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨p, b, f, w, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩+⟨-a⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩;
• : ˈopa > ˈopjê.

• In masculine nouns ending in ⟨-c⟩ and ⟨-z⟩ with the vocative singular ending ⟨-ê⟩;
• : ˈchlôpc > ˈchlôpczê''.

Noun vowel alternations

1. ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩
2. ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩
3. ⟨ôˈi, au, ùej, ă, ŏ, ĕ, ù̆⟩

• ⟨o~a⟩, ⟨o~ô⟩: ⟨o~a⟩ sometimes applies to the basic phoneme /ɔ/ and sometimes to the archiphoneme /ɔ/ when unstressed before ⟨r, rz, i, ⟩. In all other positions the archiphoneme ⟨o⟩ alternates with ⟨ô⟩.
• : ˈczod > ˈczadú
• : ˈwˈãgorz > ˈwãgôrza but wãˈgórz
• : ˈgwjozda > ˈgwjazdõ
• : ˈpôkoj > ˈpôkôjú > pôˈkôjú
• ⟨ó~a⟩, ⟨ó~ô⟩: ⟨ó⟩ can alternate between both ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ when before a nasal, before other consonants ⟨ó⟩ alternates with ⟨ô⟩. ⟨ó~a⟩ can also be found in the suffix ⟨-ón⟩ indicating inhabitants, in feminine equivalents of these nouns with mobile stress, and in three individual nouns. Outside of these cases, ⟨o~a⟩ is not to be found, and the alternation will be ⟨ó~ô⟩ before a nasal consonant. Stressed ⟨ˈó⟩ is the archiphoneme of /ˈo/ and /ˈɔ/ before ⟨j⟩.
• : ˈbóg > ˈbôga
• : ˈmjêszczón > ˈmjêszczana
• : ˈjablónka > jaˈblônkã
• ⟨é~ê⟩ and ⟨é~ˈej⟩: an alternation of ⟨é~ˈe⟩ is unattested. There is one instance of ⟨ˈéj~ˈê⟩ attested. /é~ˈej/ occurs in loanwords with fixed stress before ⟨j⟩ in stem-final position.
• : drëˈżéjn > drëˈżênja
• : ˈbjég > ˈbjêgú > ˈbjegú
• : aˈléj > aˈlejjú
• ⟨y~ë⟩, ⟨y~i⟩: ⟨y~ë⟩ after ⟨cz, dż, j⟩ and ⟨y~i⟩ after all other consonants.
• : ˈżmjija > żmjyˈjõ
• : ˈczin > ˈczynú
• : ˈżid > ˈżëda
• ⟨ú~ë⟩, ⟨ü~ù⟩: ⟨ü~ù⟩ after ⟨p, b, w, m, n, j, k, ch, g, cz⟩, ⟨ú~ë⟩ after all other consonants.
• : ˈdlúg > ˈdlëga
• : ˈjúcha > jùˈchõ
• ⟨õ~ã⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈdõb > ˈdãba
• ⟨ŭ~ĭ⟩ appears only in polysyllabic feminine loanwords ending in ⟨-ŭnga⟩ with mobile stress:
• : ˈreknŭnga > rekˈnĭngõ
• ⟨ˈôù~a⟩ /ˈôù~ôˈù/: The alternation ⟨ˈôù~a⟩ occurs before /l, / or in open final syllables. ⟨ˈôù~ôˈù⟩ occurs before all other consonants.
• : ˈstôùw or ˈstôù > staˈwú > staˈwó
• : ˈczôùn > > ˈczôùn

• ⟨a~o⟩, ⟨a~ó⟩, ⟨a~ˈôù⟩: ⟨a~ó⟩ before nasals. ⟨a~ˈôù⟩ before ⟨l, w⟩. ⟨a~o⟩ in all other cases.
• : ˈscana > ˈscón
• : ˈstrawa > ˈstrôù
• : ˈskala > ˈskôùl
• : ˈbaba > ˈbob
• ⟨ô~ó⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈgrônô > ˈgrón
• : ˈkrôwa > ˈkró
• ⟨e, ê~é⟩ see ⟨é~e, ê⟩.
• ⟨ë~y⟩, ⟨ë~ú⟩, ⟨ë~ó⟩: ⟨ë~y⟩ and ⟨ë~ú⟩ is regular but as to which alternation occurs is unpredictable; however, ⟨ë~ú⟩ alternate only in four words. Nouns ending in ⟨-ˈëna, -ëna⟩ always show ⟨ë~y⟩. ⟨ë~ó⟩ is a unique exception with one example, being the remnant of a set of alternations ⟨ë~ó⟩, ⟨ë~é⟩, ⟨ù~ó⟩, ⟨i~é⟩. which is still productive in verb stems when followed by /l/ but otherwise obsolete in the noun.
• : ˈszczêżëla ''szczeˈzúl
• : ˈsztënja > ˈsztún
• : ˈsztrëga > ˈsztrúg
• : ˈlëba > ˈlúb
• : szëja > szyj
• : ˈstrzëna > ˈstrzyn
• : ˈstrzëżënë > ˈstrzëżyn
• : ˈghrëla > ˈghrol
• ⟨i~y⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈszczinë > ˈszczyn
• ⟨ù~ú⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈbùda > ˈbúd
• ⟨ã~õ⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈlãba > ˈlõb
• ⟨aj~ˈôj⟩ alternate regularly.
• : ˈjajô > ˈjôj > jajˈmy

• Masculine nouns ending in a voiced consonant with a monosyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.
• : ˈgrod > ˈgradú
• : ˈbóg > ˈbôga
• Two exceptions exist for monosyllabic masculine nouns ending in a voiceless consonant with fixed stress:
• : ˈtónc has both this alternation and no alternation: ˈtanca or ˈtónc
• : ˈslúp can have either fixed or mobile stress, and as a result, either this alternation or no alternation: ˈslúpjéch or slëˈpjéch.
• Masculine nouns ending in a voiced consonant with polysyllabic stems containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress also alternate this way. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations or that are loanwords do not have alternations. Nouns of mobile stress ending in ⟨-orz⟩ have this type or another if there is ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the syllable preceding the final stem syllable with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩. Nouns ending in ⟨-ón⟩ may optionally alternate.
• : ˈvëchód > ˈvëchôda
• : ˈknŭrhon > ˈknŭrhona
• : ˈkõkól > ˈkõkôlú
• : ˈpjêkorz > ˈpjêkarza, ˈpjêkorza and ˈpjêkarzú
• Feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonants with a monosyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ vowel and having fixed stress typically have no alternation but can have this alternation, the same kind of nouns with mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.
• : ˈdrob > ˈdrobjõ or draˈbjõ
• : ˈscyrz > ˈscërza
• Feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonants with a polysyllabic stem containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ and having fixed or mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns containing ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or voiceless consonant do not have alternations.
• : ˈgalõz > ˈgalãzë or gaˈlãzy > gaˈlõz

• Monosyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant ending in ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem has + ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ of mobile stress show an alternation of ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ ~ ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩. Only one example can be found.
• : ˈcalô > ˈcôùl
• Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiceless consonant ending with ⟨-kô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation except those ending in ⟨-yszkô⟩ and ⟨-ùszkô⟩.
• : ˈcêlõtkô > cêˈlãtka
• Mobile polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ stems with this alternation show another alternation in the locative singular in ⟨-ú⟩, but stress can change this.
• : ˈdôbitczõtkô > dôbitˈczãtka but > ˈdôbitczõtkú
• : ˈslónyszkô > slóˈnyszka

• Nouns of mobile stress ending in ⟨-orz⟩ have this type or another if there is ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the syllable preceding the final stem syllable with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩.
• : ˈpjêkorz > ˈpjêkarza, ˈpjêkorza and pjêˈkarzú
• Diminutives ending in ⟨-ork⟩, ⟨-ólk⟩, and ⟨-ónk⟩ have this alternation.
• : ˈkoczork > koˈczôrkú
• Monosyllabic feminine stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ + containing ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the stem with mobile stress have this alternation. Such nouns with fixed stress do not.
• : ˈgwjozda > gwjazˈdõ
• : ˈmõka > mãˈkõ
• Polysyllabic feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonant+/-a/ borrowed nouns whose stems contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress have this alternation. Such native words have none.

• Monosyllabic native feminine C+⟨-a⟩ nouns whose stems end in a voiced consonant + ⟨a ô e ë i ã ê aj⟩|ôˈù ej ĭ⟩ with fixed stress have this alternation. Such borrowed words do not.
• : ˈbaba > ˈbob
• : ˈflagha > ˈflagh
• Monosyllabic borrowed feminine stems ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-a⟩ nouns and contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress unpredictably have this alternation or none. Such native words alternate.
• : ˈkara > ˈkor
• : ˈszëfla > szëˈfel
• : ˈglôwa > ˈglów
• Polysyllabic feminine nouns ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-a⟩ nouns whose stems contain ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress have this alternation.
• Feminine nouns with this alternation that form the genitive plural with -∅ and formed with an infix show no alternation.
• : ˈwarna > ˈworn but also ˈwarën
• Monosyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant+⟨-ô⟩ whose stem contain ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation. One such noun can be found.
• : ˈgównô > ˈgôwna > gôˈwjên
• Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiceless consonant with ending ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation including those ending in ⟨-iszkô⟩ and ⟨-ùszkô⟩.
• : slˈónyszkô > slónˈyszka
• Polysyllabic neuter nouns ending in a voiced consonant ending ⟨-ô⟩ nouns whose stem contains ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ with mobile stress show this alternation.
• : ˈwrzêcônô > wrzêˈcôna
• In the genitive plural of neuter nouns formed with -∅ and an infix of with this type, alternation takes place.
• : ˈdôbrô > dôˈber
• : ˈkarnô > ˈkarën

1. In masculine nouns ending with ⟨ˈa, a; ˈô, ô; ó, o⟩ + ⟨s, z, t, d, n, r, l⟩ in the locative-vocative singular and nominative plural ⟨-ê⟩ and in the locative plural ⟨-ˈéch⟩ or ⟨-éch⟩.
2. : ˈjanjól > ˈjanjelê
3. : ˈjasón > ˈjasênje > jaˈsênjéch
4. In feminine nouns' stems ending in ⟨t, d, n, r⟩ ening with ⟨-a⟩ in the dative and locative singular and the nominative and accusative dual in ⟨-ê⟩
5. : ˈkôbjôra > ˈkôbjerzê
6. : ˈmjara > ˈmjêrzê
7. In neuter nouns' stems ending in ⟨t, d, n, r⟩ ending witih ⟨-ô⟩ and neuter nouns in ⟨l⟩ ending with ⟨-ô⟩ in the locative singular and the nominative and accusative dual in ⟨-ê⟩ and in the locative plural in ⟨-ˈéch⟩ or ⟨-éch⟩.
8. : ˈcalô > ˈcêlê > cêˈléch

• Masculine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant have a fleeting infix in the nominative singular of ⟨ˈej~∅⟩ if a ⟨-j⟩ is added to the stem, otherwise ⟨ˈê~∅⟩.
• : ˈdzeń > ˈdnja
• : ˈlên > ˈlnú
• Feminine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant have a fleeting infix in the nominative singular of ⟨ˈe~∅⟩ before /ż, sz/, otherwise ⟨ê~∅⟩.
• : ˈreż > ˈrżë
• : ˈwjês > ˈwsë
• Feminine non-syllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ have a fleeting infix ⟨-ê-⟩ and -∅ in the genitive plural:
• : ˈskra > ˈskjêr or ˈskró
• Neuter non-syllabic stems in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ have a fleeting infix ⟨-ê-⟩ and /∅/ in the genitive plural:
• : ˈkrô > ˈkjêr or ˈkró
• Masculine mono- and polysyllabic stems have unstressed ⟨-ë⟩, stressed ⟨ê⟩ after velars plus ⟨j⟩, ⟨ˈe⟩ in all other cases in the nominative singular and the genitive plural and the genitive plural in -∅.
• : ˈbãbël > ˈbãbla > ˈbãbel
• Feminine mono- and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ show ∅~vowel/diphthong alternation in the genitive plural in ⟨∅⟩: ⟨∅~ˈê⟩, ⟨∅~ˈê⟩ after velars plus ⟨j⟩; ⟨∅~ˈe⟩, ⟨∅~e, ê⟩ after other consonants > jêˈgjêl
• Several feminine monosyllabic stems ending in ⟨-ew⟩ or ⟨-ëw⟩ in the nominative singular show ⟨e, ë~∅⟩ alternation in all other cases except the genitive plural in -∅.
• : ˈcérkjëw > ˈcérkjwë > ˈcérkjëw
• Neuter mono- and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ have unstressed ⟨-ê⟩, stressed ⟨ê⟩ after velars and ⟨j⟩, ⟨ˈe⟩ after other consonants in the genitive plural ending in ⟨-∅⟩.
• : ˈkrôsna > ˈkrôsên
• : ˈżêbrô > żeˈber''

Noun stress alternations

• The stress always shifts from its original position in the nominative singular to the final syllable of the ending for non-syllabic and monosyllabic stems. In polysyllabic stems the stress shifts to the last syllabic of the stem.
• The locative singular ending ⟨-ú⟩ causes an automatic shift here.
• Sometimes no stress shift occurs in the genitive plural constructed with -∅ here.

• Neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩.

• The stress always shifts from its original position in the nominative singular to the final syllable of the ending for non-syllabic and monosyllabic stems. In polysyllabic stems the stress shifts to the last syllabic of the stem.
• All here feminine nouns automatically shift the stress in the instrumental singular.
• The locative singular ending ⟨-ú⟩ causes an automatic shift here.
• The locative singular ending ⟨-i⟩ causes an automatic shift in feminine nouns with a polysyllabic stem ending in a consonant or ending in a consonant +⟨-a⟩.

• Masculine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant or in a consonant+⟨-a⟩, of which there are two examples. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant or a consonant +⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Neuter monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Feminine nouns with polysyllabic stems except compounds formed with ⟨-môc⟩ and ⟨vë-⟩.

• The stress shifts from the final stem syllable to the initial syllable of the noun.

• Masculine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ of which there is only one example.
• Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩. These nouns can also have fixed stress.
• Feminine polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant+⟨-é⟩, of which there is one example.

• Feminine nouns with monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant usually have fixed stress, with the exception of 9 nouns.
• Masculine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ are always have fixed stress except those ending ⟨-ola⟩, which can be of either gender.
• Masculine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ and feminine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨y⟩ are considered nouns ending in a consonant.
• Nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-a⟩ never stress the last syllable of the word.
• Feminine nouns ending in a consonant always have stress on the first syllable, with two exceptions.
• Feminine nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-o⟩ always stress the last syllable, with a few exceptions.
• Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩ never stress the last syllable, with one exception.
• Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-é⟩ always stress the penultimate syllable.
• Neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩ stress the initial syllable.

1. If a noun has fixed or mobile stress
2. The number of syllables of the stem
3. The stressed syllable of the nominative singular
4. The gender
5. The type of declension

• All nouns with a non-syllabic or monosyllabic stem, fixed or stress that shifts right in the genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plural have stress retracted when the initial syllable of the word is stress, except in the genitive plural ending in -∅.
• Nouns with mobile stress with polysyllabic stems retract the stress in words which are stressed on the initial syllable of the word.

• Nouns with polysyllabic stems with fixed stress.
• Polysyllabic prepositions and a few monosyllabic prepositions.
• Prepositional phrases where another word, such as a determiner or adjective, is between the preposition and the noun.

Adjectives

Adjective comparative and superlative

Adjective stress patterns

Adverbs

Adverb comparative and superlative

Pronouns

• Demonstratives: ˈtên, ˈta, ˈtô, ˈnên, ˈna, ˈnô, ˈwôn, ˈwôna, ˈwônô, ; taˈkjy, taˈko, taˈkjé, ˈjên ;
• Interrogative pronouns: ˈchtô, ˈcô and their compounds: ˈnjicht, ˈnjic ; chtôˈlê, côˈlê; chtôˈbõdz, côˈbõdz; chtôˈkôlwjek, côˈkôlwjek; chtôleˈbõdz, côleˈbõdz, chtôleˈkôlwjek, côleˈkôlwjek; bëleˈchtô, bëleˈcô; dzeˈcô; ˈnjêjëden ; ˈchtôry, jaˈkjy, ˈkóżdy, ˈjyny and their combinations: ˈchtôryˈlê, ˈchtôryˈbõdz, ˈchtôryˈkôlwjek, ˈchtôryleˈbõdz, ˈchtôryleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈchtôry, njêˈchtôry, njeˈchtôry; jaˈkjylê, jakjyˈbõdz, jakjyˈkôlwjek, jakjyleˈbõdz, jakjyleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈjakjy, njiˈjakjy; ˈkóżdyˈkôlwjek, wszeˈlakjy, wszeleˈjakjy, wszelerˈjakny, wszelerˈjakny ; ˈwszëden ; ˈczy, ˈczo, ˈczé and its compounds czyˈlê, czyˈbõdz, czyˈkôlwjek, czyleˈbõdz, czyleˈkôlwjek, bëleˈczy;
• Relative pronouns: the indeclinable cô serves as a general relative particle, to which the forms of ˈjên can be added in the oblique cases; ˈchtôry, ˈchtôro, ˈchtôré and jaˈkjy, jaˈko, jaˈkjé ;
• Indefinite pronouns: ˈchtôsz, ˈchtesz, ˈcesz, ˈchtôrysz, ˈchttôrósz, ˈchttôresz and jaˈkjysz, jaˈkosz, jaˈkjéjsz, ˈczysz, ˈczosz, ˈczéjsz ;
• Quantitative pronouns: ˈjëden, ˈjëna, ˈjënô, ˈdwa, ˈdwjê, ˈwôba, ˈwôbjë,, ˈżõden, ˈżóno, ˈżóné ;
• Possessive pronouns: ˈmój, ˈtwój, ˈswój, ˈnasz, ˈwasz ;

Numerals

Numeral stress patterns

Verbs

Conjugation

• Masculine singular: ⟨-l⟩
• Feminine singular: ⟨-la⟩
• Neuter singular: ⟨-lô⟩
• Virile plural: ⟨-ly⟩
• Non-virile: ⟨-le⟩

Class I

Class II

Class III

• III1A1a: stem vowel is ⟨y⟩ from Proto-Slavic *i
• III1A1b: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *i, *y
• III1A1c: stem vowel is ⟨ú⟩ from Proto-Slavic *u
• III1A1d: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *u
• III1A1e: stem vowel is ⟨ë⟩ from Proto-Slavic *ô
• III1A1f: stem vowel is ⟨a⟩ from Proto-Slavic *ô
• III1A2a: stem consonant is ⟨n, m⟩
• III1A2b: stem consonant is ⟨r, rz⟩ with no vowel
• III1A2c: stem consonant is ⟨r, rz⟩ with a vowel

• Class III1Ca: ˈbrac > ˈbjêrzã
• Class III1Cb: ˈdrapac > ˈdrapjã

• Class III2Aa: ˈkaszlac > ˈkaszlã
• Class III2Ab: ˈstarzec > ˈstarzejã

Class IV

• IVAa: ˈkúpjyc > ˈkúpjã
• IVAb: ˈrzëcëc > ˈrzúcã

Class V

• Va: ˈjêsc > ˈjém
• Vb: ˈdac > ˈdóm
• Vc: ˈbóm
• Vd: ˈmôc > ˈmõżesz/''ˈmõsz''