Hussein, King of Hejaz
Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi was a Hejazi leader from the Banu Qatadah branch of the Banu Hashim clan who was the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 and, after proclaiming the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, King of the Hejaz, even if he refused this title, from 1916 to 1924. He accepted the Caliphate after delegations from the Hijaz and neighboring regions urged him to assume it, stayed in power until 1925 when Hejaz was invaded by the Sultanate of Nejd. His Caliphate was opposed by the British and French empires, the Zionists and the Wahhabis alike. He received symbolic support from certain Hejazi religious circles and some Arab delegations, but broad Muslim recognition did not materialize. Later Arab nationalist writers sometimes portrayed him as the father of modern pan-Arabism, but some historians argue that the Hashemites were still newer converts to Arabism in 1916 and were not early Arab nationalists.
In 1908, in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution, Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II. His relationship with the Ottoman government deteriorated after the Committee of Union and Progress took power, due to CUP efforts to centralize administration in the Hijaz and reduce the Sharif’s traditional autonomy. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he revolted against the Ottomans only after attempts to secure hereditary control of the Hijaz through negotiation with the Ottoman government failed, accusing the Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph, framing the revolt as a defense of the historic rights of the Hejaz rather than a modern nationalist movement. While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East, the initial stage of the insurrection was carried out entirely with Hejazi forces, and Arabs in Syria and Iraq never actually rose against the Turks. Hussein supported the Armenians during the Armenian genocide and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the aftermath of World War I, Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, in protest of the Balfour Declaration, a document supporting the Jewish settlers in Palestine, and the establishment of British and French mandates in Syria, Iraq, and Palestine. His sons Faisal and Abdullah were made rulers of Iraq and Transjordan respectively in 1921.
He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after the proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Britain’s withdrawal of support left Hussein vulnerable to Ibn Saʻud’s expanding power, who promptly launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son Ali bin Hussein. After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan, on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the Sharifate of Mecca and the Sharifian Caliphate to an end.
Hussein was forcibly removed from Aqaba by the British and deported to Cyprus in June 1925, where he lived under a form of supervised residence rather than formal imprisonment. His exile was motivated by British fears that his presence in Aqaba could provoke conflict with Ibn Saʿūd, not by immediate medical concerns. He was relocated from Cyprus to Amman in late 1930 after a significant decline in his health, and died there on 4 June 1931. He was buried at the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem, near al-Aqsa Mosque, with the ceremony supervised by British authorities.
Biography
Ascendance and early life
Ascendance
Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn was born in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in, the former Sharif of Mecca. As a member of the Hashemite dynasty, he was a descendant of Muhammad in the 37th generation through his grandson Hasan bin Ali. His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a Circassian.He belonged to the Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the Sharifate of Mecca since the accession of their ancestor Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed Mecca since the 11th century.
Power struggles and birth
In 1827, Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in was appointed Sharif, the first Sharif of the Dhawu Awn branch and ending the Dhawu Zayd’s control of the amirate, which had lasted since 1718. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd, the very same Sharif whom Muhammad ibn al-Abd al-Mu'in had succeeded. After his dismissal in 1851, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Mu‘in was arrested and exiled to Istanbul by Ottoman authorities. While there Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854.Muhammad was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to Mecca. Soon after, in 1858, Muhammad died and was succeeded by his eldest son, Emir and Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle who held the Sharifate until 1877. While still young, he returned to Mecca after his father's death, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862.
Youth and education
Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside the city to grow up among Bedouin nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of the Arabic language and was also educated in Islamic law and doctrine. Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the seven Mu'allaqat. With Sheikh Ahmad Zayni Dahlan, he studied the Quran, completing its memorization before the age of 20.File:Carriage of Hussein bin Ali - 1890.jpg|thumb|Mahmal of Hussein bin Ali probably in Hejaz, 1890
During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding the Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the Najd and the eastern regions of Hejaz to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the Sharifate of Mecca then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins, including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse, a type of vernacular poetry of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting.
Exile to Constantinople
In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of Pasha. After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for the position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893. He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the Sublime Porte—where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home.As Emir
Appointment
Following the removal of his predecessor in October and the sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan Abdul Hamid II in November 1908. His appointment came during a time of cooperation between Arab Notables and the new regime in Istanbul, when constitutional reforms were seen interrupted at granting more local autonomy.However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the Young Turk Revolution, which brought the Young Turks to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are the lands of God in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of God The constitution of the lands of God is the Shariah of God and the Sunnah of His Prophet". His reply reflected a long standing political practice of the Hejaz, where governance rested on Islamic law and Sharifian custom as opposed to Ottoman secular constitutionalism. In early 1914 he and his family discussed possible Ottoman retaliation, but their concern centered on the preservation of Hejazi autonomy advocating for a broader Arab political program.Religious stances
His main teacher was Ahmad Zayni Dahlan, with whom he became a hafiz. He had a Shafi'i and Hanafi education, but also allied with the Malikis and opposed the Wahhabis, at a time when adherence to a madhhab was more fluid.Campaign in 'Asir (1911)
In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in 'Asir; the Committee of Union and Progress requested his support to fight Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi, who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the Idrisid Emirate. Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir. He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from the Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi. After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the Idrisid forces.Then, he managed to break the siege of Abha, which was being conducted by al-Idrisi forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched. Overall, he was able to defeat the opposing forces. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously. This led to a rupture between the two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time.
The Asir dispute contributed to growing distrust between Hussein and Ottoman Officials but his actions were still operating in the existing political and religious framework of the Hijaz.