Pottery in the Indian subcontinent


Pottery in the Indian subcontinent has an ancient history and is one of the most tangible and iconic elements of Indian art. Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Lahuradewa and later the Indus Valley Civilisation. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced extensively in the subcontinent. Until recent times all Indian pottery has been earthenware, including terracotta.
Early glazed ceramics were used for making beads, seals, bangles during Neolithic period but these glazes were very rarely used on pottery. Hindu traditions historically discouraged the use of pottery for eating off, while large matki jars for the storage of water or other things form the largest part of traditional Indian pottery, as well as objects such as lamps. Small simple kulhar cups, and also oil lamps, that are disposable after a single use remain common. Today, pottery thrives as an art form in India. Various platforms, including potters' markets and online pottery boutiques have contributed to this trend.
This article covers pottery vessels, mainly from the ancient Indian cultures known from archaeology. There has also been much figurative sculpture and decorative tilework and roof tiles in ceramics in the subcontinent, with the production of terracotta figurines being widespread in different regions and periods. In Bengal in particular, a lack of stone produced an extensive tradition of architectural sculpture for temples and mosques in terracotta and carved brick. The approximately life-size figures decorating gopurams in South India are usually painted terracotta. Traditional pottery in the subcontinent is usually made by specialized kumhar potter communities.
In 2018, the value of ceramics of all types produced in the Republic of India was projected to reach €7.5 billion in 2022. In 2022, annual production of ceramic tableware in India was estimated to be 40,000 tonnes.

Mesolithic pottery

, also called Middle Stone Age, is an intermediate cultural stage between the Paleolithic which had chipped stone tools and Neolithic with polished stone tools. The Mesolithic hunter gatherers had better efficiency than Paleolithic with ability to more diverse range of animal and vegetable food sources.
Cord-Impressed style pottery belongs to 'Mesolithic' ceramic tradition that developed among Vindhya hunter-gatherers during the Mesolithic period. This ceramic style is also found in later Proto-Neolithic phase in nearby regions. This early type of pottery, found at the site of Lahuradewa and Chopanimando, is currently the oldest known pottery tradition in South Asia, dating back to 7,000-6,000 BC.

Neolithic cultures

, also called New Stone Age, is "final stage of cultural evolution or technological development among prehistoric humans. It was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving."

Ahar-Banas culture (3000 – 1500 BCE) in Rajasthan

is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture on the banks of Ahar River of southeastern Rajasthan state in India, lasting from 3000 to 1500 BC, contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley civilization. Situated along the Banas and Berach Rivers, as well as the Ahar River, the Ahar-Banas people were exploiting the copper ores of the Aravalli Range to make axes and other artefacts. They were sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley. The design motifs of the seals are generally quite simple, with wide-ranging parallels from various Indus Civilization sites.

Amri-Nal culture (6000 – 1300 BCE) in Sindh and Balochistan

Amri, also has non-Harappan phases during 6000 BC to 4000 BC, and later Harappan Phases till 1300 BCE.

Bhirrana culture (7570 – 1900 BCE) along paleo Saraswati in Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan

is likely the oldest pre-Harappan neolithic site dating back to 7570–6200 BCE. The pottery repertoire is very rich and the diagnostic wares of this period included Mud Applique Wares, Incised, Tan/Chocolate Slipped Wares, Brown-on-Buff Wares, Bichrome Wares, Black-on-Red Ware and plain red wares.

Kunal culture (4000 BCE) along in Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

is in Hisar district of Haryana in India, has distinct i.e. local pottery and house styles. Hoard, which is a pot containing gold-leaf, silver ornaments and beads of semi-precious stones indicate contact and trade with Harappan culture. Earliest phase is dated to 4000 BC, it is older than Early-Harappan site of Rehman Dheri which was dated to 3300 BC.
The earliest site of this culture is Kunal in Haryana which is older than Rehman Dheri. The type site, the first excavated site of this type of culture is Kot Diji. Rehman Dheri, which was considered oldest example of this culture, is now the second oldest example of this culture after Kunal was excavated and found to be older than Rehman Dher with similar older cultural artifacts then the Rehman Dheri.
Kot Diji and Amri are close to each other in Sindh, they earlier developed indigenous culture which had common elements, later they came in contact with Harappan culture and fully developed into Harappan culture. Earliest examples of artifacts belonging to this culture were found at Rehman Dheri, however, later excavations found the oldest example of this culture at Kunal. These are cultural ancestor to site at Harappa. These sites have pre-Harappan indigenous cultural levels, distinct from the culture of Harappa, these are at Banawali, Kot Diji, Amri. Rehman Dheri also has a pre Kot Diji phase which are not part of IVC culture. Kot Diji has two later phases that continue into and alongside Mature Harappan Phase. Fortified towns found here are dated as follows.
  • Kunal, in Hisar district of Haryana in India is the earliest site found with layers in phase I dating back to 5000 BCE and 4000 BCE, site's culture is an older ancestry of the Pre-Harappan site of Rehman Dheri which was dated to 3300 BC. A button seal was discovered at Kunal during 1998-99 excavations by Archaeological Survey of India. The seal is similar to the Rehman Dheri examples. It contained a picture of two deer on one side, and geometrical pattern on other side. The similar specimen from Rehman-Dheri is datable to, which makes Kunal site an older ancestor of Rehman Dheri. The second phase of Kunal corresponds to post-Neolithic phase of Hakra culture was also found.
  • Kot Diji, is the type site, located in Sindh in Pakistan.
  • Amri, also has non-Harappan phases during 6000 BC to 4000 BC, and later Harappan Phases till 1300 BCE.
  • Kalibangan, in northwest Rajasthan in India on Ghaggar River.
  • Rehman Dheri, 3300 BCE, near Dera Ismail Khan and close to River Zhob Valleyin Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.

    Mehrgarh culture (7000 – 2500/2000 BCE) in Balochistan

There is no pottery in Mehrgarh Period I but evidence of pottery begins from Period II. In period III, the finds become much more abundant as the potter's wheel is introduced, and they show more intricate designs and also animal motifs. The characteristic female figurines appear beginning in Period IV and the finds show more intricate designs and sophistication. Pipal leaf designs are used in decoration from Period VI. Some sophisticated firing techniques were used from Periods VI and VII and an area reserved for the pottery industry has been found at mound MR1. However, by Period VIII, the quality and intricacy of designs seem to have suffered due to mass production, and a growing interest in bronze and copper vessels.

Sothi-Siswal culture (4600 – 3200 BCE) along paleo Sarasvati in Haryana and Northwestern Rajasthan

-Siswal is the site of a Pre-Indus Valley Civilisation settlement dating to as early as 4600 BCE. Sothi culture may be as early as 4600 BCE, while the earliest Siswal A layer is dated 3800-3200 BCE, and is equivalent to the Middle and Upper layers of Sothi. Sothi culture precedes Siswal culture considerably, and should be seen as the earlier tradition.
Sothi-Siswal culture is named after these two sites, located 70 km apart. As many as 165 sites of this culture have been reported. There are also broad similarities between Sothi-Siswal and Kot Diji ceramics. Kot Diji culture area is located just to the northwest of the Sothi-Siswal area. Type sites are Siswal in Hisar district of haryana and Sothi in Rajasthan along the Ghaggar–Chautang rivers in the Ganga–Yamuna doab, with least 165 Sothi-Siswal sites identified with this culture including Nawabans, 2 sites are bigger than 20 hectares. Sothi-Siswal ceramics are found as far south as the Ahar-Banas culture area in southeastern Rajasthan.

Rangpur culture (3000 – 800 BCE) in Gujarat

, near Vanala on Saurashtra peninsula in Gujarat, lies on the tip between the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch, it belongs to the period of the Indus valley civilization, and lies to the northwest of the larger site of Lothal. Trail Diggings were conducted by Archeological Survey of India during 1931 led by M.S.Vats. Later, Ghurye, Dikshit and S.R.Rao excavated the site under ASI projects. S.R.Rao has classified the deposits into four periods with three sub periods in Harappan Culture, Period II with an earlier Period, Microlithic and a Middle Paleolithic State with points, scrapers and blades of jasper. The dates given by S.R.Rao are:
  • Period I - Microliths unassociated with Pottery : 3000 BC
  • Period II - Harappan : 2000–1500 BC
  • * Period II B - Late Harappan : 1500–1100 BC
  • * Period II C - Transition Phase of Harappa : 1100–1000 BC
  • Period III - Lustrous Red Ware Period : 1000–800 BC.

    Culture overlap with Indus Valley Civilization

These cultures developed separately from IVC. All of these cultures have distinct cultural traits, such as artifacts, pottery design and patterns, which are different from the typical 3 IVC Phases. These cultures have some overlap with Indus Valley Civilization. These are either sites older than IVC in and around core zone of IVC where IVC cultural phases were also found; or the sites contemporaneous to IVC, usually found around the periphery of IVC core zone, which exhibit distinct cultural characteristics with some cultural overlap with IVC. Some of these had cultural contact and trade with IVC, hence the pottery found on these sites has some cultural overlap with IVC. In many cases, where these sites are within IVC core zone, pottery belonging to IVC culture has been found in the higher layers of the mound. These cultures are usually classified in the following 3 ways:
  • Separate older cultures before IVC period: These pre-date the IVC and originated in a period before the Early-Harappan Phase, though in some cases there may eb overlap with Early-Harappan Phase.
  • Contemporaneous to IVC with distinct cultural characteristics': With trade and cultural links to IVC, found in and around the core IVC site zone.
  • Subtypes of 3 IVC phases: These cultural are classified as part of IVC but with distinct characteristics. These are classified as subtypes of 3 IVC phases by stretching the scope of IVC wider in terms of geographical range, time span, the diversity of characteristics of artifacts. For example, some of these could be classified as subtype of Early-Harappan Phase by stretching the nomenclature of this phase to "Proto-Harappan Phase" or "Pre-Harappan Phase" by widening the time span of this phase. Depending on the contemporaneous period, some of these cultures are also classified as subtypes of Mature-Harappan or Late-Harappan Phase.
Cultures which were contemporaneous with the "Early Harappan Phase" were the Ahar–Banas, Amri-Nal, Damb-Sadat, Kot Diji and Sothi-Siswal cultures. Harappa is its type site of this phase of IVC, which also had an early phase dating to 3500 BCE. IVC sites of this phase were village communities engaged in agricultural and domestication of animals, and specialised crafts. It late evolved into urbanised Mature Harappan Phase. Cultures which were contemporaneous with the "Mature Harappan Phase" are Bara, Kunal, Rangpur cultures some of these pre-date IVC culture.