Kalibangan
Kalibangan is a town located on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar in Tehsil Pilibangān, between Suratgarh and Hanumangarh in Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan, India 205 km from Bikaner. It is also identified as being established in the triangle of land at the confluence of Drishadvati and Sarasvati Rivers. The prehistoric and pre-Mauryan character of the Indus Valley Civilization was first identified at this site by Luigi Tessitori. Kalibangan's excavation report was published in its entirety in 2003 by the Archaeological Survey of India, 34years after the completion of excavations. The report concluded that Kalibangan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan is distinguished by its unique fire altars and "world's earliest attested ploughed field". It is around 2900 BC that the region of Kalibangan developed into what can be considered a planned city.
Kalibangan was first excavated under the Directorship of Braj Lal between 1960-1961 to 1969-1970. Other excavation team members were Bal Thapar, M.D. Khare, K.M. Shrivastava, J.P. Joshi. and S.P. Jain.
Indus Valley Civilization
The Kalibangan pre-historic site was discovered by Luigi Tessitori, an Italian Indologist. He was doing some research in ancient Indian texts and was surprised by the character of ruins in that area. He sought help from John Marshall of the Archaeological Survey of India. At that time the ASI was conducting excavations at Harappa, but they were unaware of the significance of the ruins. In fact, Tessitori was the first person to recognize that the ruins were 'Prehistoric' and pre-Mauryan. Luigi Tessitori also pointed out the nature of the culture, but at that time it was not possible to guess that the ruins of Kalibangan lay within the Indus Valley Civilisation. He died five years before the Harappan culture was formally recognized.After India's independence, both the major Harappan cities together with the Indus became a part of Pakistan and India, archaeologists were compelled to intensify the search for Harappan sites in India. Amlānand Ghosh was the first person to recognise this site as Harappan and marked it out for excavations. Under the leadership of Braj Lal, Bal Thapar, M. D. Khare, K. M. Shrivastava, and S. P. Jain carried out excavations for 9 years in 9 successive excavation sessions. Two ancient mounds were excavated, spread over half a kilometre. On the western side is the smaller mound, 9 meters high and known as the citadel. The Eastern mound, which is higher and bigger, is known as the lower city.
The excavation unexpectedly brought to light a twofold sequence of cultures, of which the upper one belongs to the Harappan, showing the characteristic grid layout of a metropolis and the lower one was formerly called pre-Harappan but is now called "Early Harappan or antecedent Harappan". Other nearby sites belonging to IVC include Balu, Kunal, and Banawali.
Early Harappan Phase
This Early Harappan phase at Kalibangan belongs to the Sothi-Siswal culture.Traces of pre-Harappan culture have been found only at the lower levels of the western mound. According to archaeological evidence, the Indus Valley culture existed at the site from the proto-Harappan age to the Harappan age. This earlier phase is labelled Kalibangan-I or Period-I. Similarity of pottery relates Kalibangan-I with the Sothi-Siswal culture because a lot of this pottery was later discovered at Sothi village in North Western India.
There are also links in Kalibangan to the Kot Diji culture.
Fort and houses
In this phase, the settlement was fortified, using dried mud bricks, from the beginning of occupation. This fort had been built twice in different periods. Earlier, fort wall had a thickness of 1.9 meters, which was raised to 3.7–4.1 meters during reconstruction in this phase. Brick size was 20 × 20 × 10 cm in both construction-phases. The citadel mound is a parallelogram about 130 meters on the east–west axis and 260 meters on the north–south. Town planning was like that of Mohenjodaro or Harappa. The direction of houses and brick sizes was markedly different from that used in the Harappan phase.Within the walled area, the houses were also built of mud bricks of the same size as used in the fort wall; the use of burnt bricks is attested by a drain within the houses, remains of ovens and cylindrical pits, lined with lime plaster. Some burnt wedge shaped bricks have also been found.
Earliest ploughed field
, former DG of ASI writes, "Kalibangan in Rajasthan has given the evidence of the earliest ploughed agricultural field ever revealed through an excavation.". It has been found south east of the pre-Harappan settlement, outside the fort. "Kalibangan excavations in present western Rajasthan shows a ploughed field, the first site of this nature in the world. It shows a grid pattern of furrows, placed about 30 cm apart running east-west and other spaced about 190 cm apart running north-south, a pattern remarkably similar to the one practiced even now.". Even today, similar ploughing is used for two simultaneous crops in this region, esp. of mustard and gram. In order to preserve it, this excavated ploughed field area was refilled after excavation and the area was marked by concrete pillar posts.'Six fabrics of Kalibangan' pottery
Early Harappan Phase pottery found at Kalibangan has been classified to make a datum line for ceramic studies in the Indian subcontinent, which is known as the six fabrics of Kalibanagan. Fabrics A, B, and D are grouped as redware, Fabric C pottery is violet and black and classified as subtype of black and red ware.Six fabrics of Kalibanagan refer to the distinguishing mark on pottery of this early Harappan phase characterized by six fabrics labelled A, B, C, D, E and F, which were later identified also at nearby site of Sothi belonging to Sothi-Siswal culture which is a subtype of Early Harappan Phase.
Six fabrics of Kalibanagan ae as follows:
- Fabrics A, B, and D can be clubbed together. They are red painted. Fabric A is carelessly potted in spite of use of potter's wheel. It contains designs in light-black, often decorated with white lines. Lines, semicircles, grids, insects, flowers, leaves, trees and squares were favourite motifs. Fabric B shows marked improvement in finishing, but the lower half was deliberately roughened. Flowers, animals were painted in black on red background. Fabric D contained designs of slanted lines or semicircles in some, while most pots were plain. But Fabric-C pottery was thicker and stronger.
- Fabric C was distinguished by violet tinge and fine polish, with designs in black; it is the best proto-Harappan pottery in finishing. Fabric E was light colored and Fabric F was grey.
Other finds
Earliest earthquakes and end of Phase-I
B. B. Lal, former DG of ASI writes,"Kalibangan in Rajasthan... has also shown that there occurred an earthquake around 2600 BC, which brought to an end the Early Indus settlement at the site.". This is perhaps the earliest archaeologically recorded earthquake. At least three pre-historic earthquakes affecting the Indus Valley Civilization at Dholavira in Khadir have been identified during 2900–1800 BC.KLB-I phase has left 1.6 meters of continuous deposits during five distinct structural strata, the last of which was destroyed perhaps by an earthquake and the site was abandoned around 2600 BC, soon to be settled again by Harappans.
Harappan Phase
Fire altars
At Kalibangan, fire altars have been discovered, similar to those found at Lothal which Shikaripura Rao thinks could have served no other purpose than a ritualistic one. These altars suggest fire worship. It is the only Indus Valley Civilization site where there is no evidence to suggest the worship of the mother goddess.Within the fortified citadel complex, the southern half contained many raised platforms of mud bricks, mutually separated by corridors. Stairs were attached to these platforms. Vandalism of these platforms by brick robbers makes it difficult to reconstruct the original shape of structures above them but unmistakable remnants of oval fire-pits of burnt bricks for have been found, with a sacrificial post in the middle of each pit and sacrificial terracotta cakes in all these fire-pits. Houses in the lower town also contain similar altars. Burnt charcoals have been found in these fire-pits. The structure of these fire-altars is reminiscent of altars, but the analogy may be coincidental, and these altars are perhaps intended for some specific purpose by the community as a whole. In some fire-altars remnants of animals have been found, which suggest a possibility of animal-sacrifice.
The official website of ASI reports : "Besides the above two principle parts of the metropolis there was also a third one-a moderate structure situated upwards of 80 m e. of the lower town containing four to five fire altars. This lonely structure may perhaps have been used for ritual purposes." Thus, fire-altars have been found in three groups: public altars in the citadel, household altars in lower town, and public altars in a third separate group. A short distance from fire altars, a well and remnants of a bathing place were found, suggesting ceremonial bath was a part of rituals.
Lower town
The lower town was also a fortified parallelogram, although only traces are now left. The fort was made of mud bricks and three or four structural phases have been recognized. It had gates in north and west.B. B. Lal wrote:
"Well-regulated streets oriented almost invariably along with the cardinal directions, thus forming a grid-iron pattern. even the widths of these streets were in a set ratio, i.e. if the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other streets were twice, thrice and so on. Such a town-planning was unknown in contemporary West Asia.".
The lower town was 239 meters east to west, but north–south extent cannot be determined. 8 main roads have been recognized, 5 north–south and 3 east–west. Few more east–west roads are expected to be buried within the unexcavated remains. Second east–west road ran in a curved outline to meet the first at the north-eastern end, where a gateway was provided. This road was an anomaly in the grid-pattern of straight roads. There were many lanes connected to specific housing complexes. Roads and lanes had widths in accurately determined proportions, like in other Harappan cities, ranging from 7.2 meters for main roads to 1.8 meters for narrow lanes. Fender posts were installed at street corners to prevent accidents. In second structural level, roads were laid with mud tiles. Drains from houses emptied into pits beneath the roads. Some central authority must be there to plan and regulate all this.