Proto-Torres–Banks language
Proto-Torres–Banks is the reconstructed ancestor of the seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands of Vanuatu. Like all indigenous languages of Vanuatu, it belongs to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian languages.
More specifically, it is the shared ancestor of the following modern languages : Hiw, Lo-Toga, Lehali, Löyöp, Volow, Mwotlap, Lemerig, Vera'a, Vurës, Mwesen, Mota, Nume, Dorig, Koro, Olrat, Lakon, and Mwerlap.
Reconstruction
Proto-Torres–Banks, as reconstructed with the comparative method from the attested daughter languages, evidently represented an early, mutually intelligible chain of Oceanic dialects in the northern part of Vanuatu starting from 1000 BCE after Lapita settlement of the archipelago, as evidenced by the pattern of loss and retention of the Proto-Oceanic phoneme *R, which merged with *r in the early history of the North-Central Vanuatu dialect chain. It therefore is not a "true" proto-language in the sense of an undifferentiated language ancestral to all Torres–Banks languages, but rather a part of the early North-Central Vanuatu linkage with some dialectal variation across different island groups, before they eventually disintegrated into mutually unintelligible languages.Elements of the proto-language have been proposed by linguist Alexandre François: vowels and consonants, personal pronouns, space system, vocabulary.
Phonology
Phoneme inventory
Proto-Torres–Banks had 5 phonemic vowels, /i e a o u/, and 16 consonants:Following the loss of final POc consonants, syllable structure in Proto-Torres–Banks was open, i.e.
V with optional consonant: e.g. POc *quraŋ "crayfish" > PTB *ura ~ *uraŋi; POc *matiruʀ "to sleep" > PTB *matiru; POc *laŋit "sky" > *laŋi "wind". No descendant language preserves this situation today, but it can still be found in other related languages such as Gela and Uneapa.Stress fell on the penultimate syllable. Following the pervasive loss of final vowels, descendant languages usually have stress on the final syllable. Vera'a and Mota have lost stress entirely.
Evolution of vowels
In all of the descendant languages except for Mota, vowel hybridization occurred. Later, a process of vowel deletion took place whereby every second vowel, being unstressed, was dropped: this resulted in an increase in the number of vowel phonemes – a process known as transphonologization. For example, *laŋi "wind" >,, giving rise to phonemes /ɔ/ and /ɛ/ respectively. Words which initially had 4 syllables were reduced to 2 syllables ; *CVCV disyllables were reduced to a single CVC syllable ; words with 3 syllables ended up with 2, including *CVCVV which became *CVCV.In Mota, only single high vowels were dropped, evident even in the earliest records: e.g. *tolu "three" > /tol/. In the 1880s, Codrington reported cases when Mota had preserved high vowels, which have since disappeared from today's Mota.
In Hiw, Lo-Toga and Vera'a, the final vowel was retained as a schwa when it was originally lower than the one under stress: e.g. POc *ikan "fish" > *íɣa > /ɪɣə/, /iɣə/. In Vera'a, the schwa became an echo vowel, e.g. POc *pulan "moon" > *βula > *βulə > /fulʊ/; that final vowel in Vera'a can disappear in phrase-medial position, yielding the form /ful/ for 'moon'.
In trisyllabic words, the first vowel tends to be deleted or copied after the second vowel, with the exception of Mota and Lakon, which preserve them. Thus, POc *panua "island, land" > *βanua > /βanʊ/, but /βʊnʊ/.
Examples of reconstructions
reconstruction | meaning | reflexes | Proto-Oceanic etymon | source |
| *iᵑgo | ‘2sg. pronoun, thou’ | *iᵑgo > /ikə/ *niᵑgo > /nikə/, /nɛk/, /niŋ/, /nɪŋ/, /nɪk/, /næk/, /nikɪ/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /niko/, /nik/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɛ͡ak/ | *ko "thou" | François 2016: 33 |
| *lolomarani | ‘wise, intelligent; wisdom, knowledge’ | /jɵjməg͡ʟen/ ‘smart; to know’, /lolmərɛn/ ‘smart; to know’, /lɛlməjæn/, /lɔlmɛjɛn/, /lɔlmɛjɛn/, /lɔlmɛjɛn/, /lɪlmɛrɛn/, /lʊlmaran/, /lʊlʊmɛrɛn/, /lɔlmɛrɛn/, /lolomaran/, /llɔmraːn/, /lɔlmaːræn/, /lɔlmɛrɛn/ | *lalom "inside" + *ma-Raqani "daylight" | François 2013: 208 |
| *rowo | ‘dash, escape; out; seawards’ | /g͡ʟow/, /row/, /jɔw/, /jɔw/, /jɔ/, /jɔw/, /rɔw/, /rʊw/, /rʊw/, /rɔw/, /rowo/, /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, /rɔw/ | *Ropok ‘dash, fly’ | François 2015: 191 |
| *salaɣoro | ‘secret; secret meeting place in the bush for men during initiation rituals’ | /hɔləɣor/, /n-halɣɛj/, /n-salɣoj/, /n-halɣoj/, /na-halɣoj/, /n-sɒlɣœr/, /salɣʊr/, /salɣʊr/, /salɣɔr/, /salaɣoro/, /salɔwɔr/, /salɣɔr/, /salɣɔr/, /salwɔj/, /salwɔː/ | *jalan "road" + *koro "obstruct" | François 2005: 499 |
| *swo | ‘down; northwest’ | *siwo > /hiw/ "Hiw (island)", /iw/, /siwo/ *suwo > /ʉw/, /hɔw/, /sʊw/, /hʊ/, /hʊw/, /sʊw/, /suwʊ/, /sʊw/, /sʊw/, /hʊw/, /sʊw/ | *sipo "down" | François 2015: 190 |
| *totoɣale | ‘notch, carve an effigy; effigy, image’ | /nɔ-tɔtɣal/, /ʔɔɣal/, /ʔʊɣal/, /tʊtɣi͡al/, /totoɣale/, /tɔtɣæl/, /nɛ-tɛtɣɛl/ | *toto "cut" + *kale "deceive" | François 2013: 198 |
Regular sound changes from Proto-Oceanic
The historical sound changes that took place from Proto-Oceanic (POc) to Proto-Torres–Banks were intricate, yet largely regular. Some have been reconstructed explicitly, whether on vowels or on consonants; others are implicit in published lists of lexical reconstructions.Pervasive phonological sound changes include:
- The loss of all final POc consonants, such as POc *manuk "bird" > *manu. This sound change resulted in the language having only open syllables.
- The labialization of POc *p, *ᵐb and *m before *o or *u, resulting in *w, *ᵐbʷ and *mʷ.
| POc | reflex | Comments | Examples | Source |
| *pʷ | *βʷ > *w | > /w/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *puia "good" > *pʷia > *βʷia > *wia > /wi̯ə/, /⟨ɣɛ-wi̯ə/, /⟨ɣɛ-wɪ/, /wɪ/, /wi/, /wiɪ/, /wɪ/, /wɪ/, /wia/, /wɪ/, /wɪ/, /wɪ/, /wɪ/, /wɛ͡a/ | |
| *p | *β | > /β/ in most daughter languages, except: /f/ in.
| - POc *panua "island, land" > *βanua > /βəniɵ/, /βəniə/, /n-βɔnɔ/, /n-βʊnʊ/, /n-βʊnʊ/,, /na-pnʊ/, /n-βʊnʊ/, /funuʊ/, /βono/, /βʊnʊ/, /βanua/, /βunu/, /βnʊ/, /βʊnʊ/, /βʊnʊ/, /βanʊ/, /βʊnʊ/ | |
| *p | *w | Before a rounded vowel, *p > *β > *βʷ > /w/ often ; mostly in northern languages | - POc *poli "to buy" > *βoli > *βʷoli > *woli > /wɪl/, /wol/- *usi "hit, kill" > *βusi > /fus/, /βys/, /βus/, /βus/, /βuh/, /βus/ > *βʷusi > *wusi > /wu/, /wuh/, /wih/, /wuh/ | |
| *t | *t | > /t/ in all daughter languages, except: /ʔ/ in and /t͡ʃ/ in before front vowels.
| - POc *tamate "dead person" > *tamate "ghost, spirit" > /təmet/, /təmet/, /n-təmat/, /n-tamat/, /n-tamat/, /na-tmat/, /ʔamaʔ/, /ʔamaʔ/, /timi͡at/, /tamat/, /tamate/, /tamat/, /tmat/, /tamat/, /tamat/ /ætmæt/, /nɛ-tɛmɛt/- POc *pati "four" > *βati > /βɔt/, /βɛt/, /βæt/, /βɛt/, /n-βɛt/, /βɛt/, /βɛʔ/, /fɛʔ/, /βɛt/, /βɛt/, /βat/, /βat/, /βaːt/, /βɛ͡at/, /βat/, /βæs/, /βɛt/ | |
| *k | *ɣ | > /ɣ/ in all daughter languages, except: Before *o or *u, in some languages, *ɣ tends to become w. When *ɣ ended up in coda position in post- syllables, it was lost regularly in &, and sporadically in,,. In, *ɣ was regularly lost in coda position and triggered compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. | - POc *kutu > *ɣutu "louse" > /ɣit/, /ɣʉt/, /wut/, /wut/, /ni-ɣit/, /ni-ɣit/, /wuʔ/, /wuʔ/, /wyt/, /wut/, /wut/, /wu-wut/, /wut/, /ɣut/, /wut/, /wut/ - POc *sake "up" > *saɣe > /aɣ/, /aɣ/, /ha/, /sa/, /ha/, /haɣ/, /saɣ/, /saɣ/, /si͡aɣ/, /saɣ/, /saɣe/, /sa/, /saɣ/, /sa/, /saː/, /haɣ/, /sɛ͡aɣ/ | |
| *ᵐbʷ | *ᵐbʷ | > /ᵑᵐg͡bʷ/ in /k͡pʷ/ in all Banks languages except and. /kʷ/ in,, and. | - POc *ᵐbʷatu "head" + -ᵑgu "my" > *ᵐbʷatu-ᵑgu "my head" > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷatu-ᵑgu > /kʷiti-k/, /kʷətʉ-k/, /n-kʷutu-k/, /n-k͡pʷit͡ʃi-k/, /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷiti-ŋ/, /ni-k͡pʷti-k/, /n-k͡pʷiʔi-k/, /k͡pʷiʔi-k/, /k͡pʷøty-k/, /k͡pʷutu-k/, /k͡pʷatu-k/, /na-k͡pʷutu-k/, /na-k͡pʷtu-k/, /k͡pʷutu-k/, /k͡pʷutu-k/, /k͡pʷatʊ-k/, /nɞ-kʷɞtʉ-k/ | |
| *ᵐb | *ᵐb | /ᵐb/ in,,,,,,, /p/ in,,,,,,,,. | - POc *ᵐbanic "wing" + -ᵑgu "my" > *ᵐbani-ᵑgu "my hand; my wing" > /pini-k/, /pɛnɛ-k/, /n-mɪnɪ-ŋ/, /na-mnɪ-k/, /pini-k/, /ᵐbini-k/, /ᵐbɛni-k/, /pini-k/, /pane-k/, /ᵐbini-k/, /na-ᵐbni-k/, /ᵐbini-k/, /panɪ-k/, /ᵐbani-k/ | |
| *ᵐb | *ᵐb | /ᵐb/ in /m/ in,,,,,,,, /p/ in,,,,,,. | - *leᵐba "mud, muddy" > /jepə/ “swamp”, /lɛpə/ “swamp”, /n-læm/ “swamp garden for taro”, /n-lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, /lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, /lepa/, /lɛᵐb/ “soil, ground”, /lɛp/ “soil, ground” | |
| *ᵐb | *ᵐbʷ | *ᵐb before a rounded vowel. → same reflexes as with *ᵐbʷ. | - POc *ᵐboŋi "night" > *ᵐbʷoŋi > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷoŋi > /kɵŋ/, /kʷəŋ/, /kʷɔŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷɪŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷøŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷøŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷoŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷʊŋ/, /k͡pʷɪŋ/, /kʷʊŋ/ | |
| *ⁿd / *ⁿdr | *ⁿd | /ⁿd/ in all Torres–Banks languages, except: /t/ in and /ʈ͡ʂ/ in. /t͡ʃ/ in and /n/ in and | - POc *ⁿdraRaq "blood" > *ⁿdara > /tag͡ʟə/, /ʈ͡ʂarə/, /n-ⁿdaj/, /n-ⁿdaj/, /n-ⁿdaj/, /na-ⁿdaj/, /tɒr/, /ⁿdara/, /ⁿdar/, /nar/, /nara/, /ⁿdar/, /ⁿdar/, /ⁿdar/, /t͡ʃaj/, /t͡ʃæː/, /na-ⁿdar/ | |
| *ⁿd / *ⁿdr | *ⁿd | /ⁿd/ in /t/ in,, /t͡ʃ/ in and /n/ in all other Torres–Banks languages | - POc *kita "" > *ɣiⁿda > /titə/, /ɣiʈ͡ʂə/, /ɣɛn/, /jɛn/, /ɣɪn/, /ɣɪn/, /ɣæt/, /ɣiⁿdɪ/, /nin/, /nin/, /nina/, /ɣin/, /ɣɪⁿd/, /ɣin/, /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, /ɣɛ͡an/ - *ⁿdiⁿdi “wall in; enclosure” > /tit/, /ʈ͡ʂit/, /ⁿdin/, /ⁿdin/, /nin/ - POc *roⁿdrom “think” > *ⁿdo > *ⁿdomi > /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, /ⁿdɪm/, /nom/, /ⁿdʊm/, /ⁿdʊm/ > *ⁿdoⁿdo > /tot/, /ʈ͡ʂot/, /ⁿdɛn/, /ⁿdɔn/, /ⁿdɔn/, /tœt/ > *ⁿdoⁿdomi > /ttɵm/, /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, /ⁿdøⁿdøm/, /nʊnʊm/, /nonom/, /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, /t͡ʃɪt͡ʃɪm/, /t͡ʃɪːt͡ʃɪm/, /ⁿdɵⁿdʊ͡ɵm/ > *ⁿdomiⁿdomi > /ʈ͡ʂəmʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, /ⁿdɪmⁿdɪm/ | |
| *ᵑg | *ᵑg | /ᵑg/ in. /k/ in all other daughter languages. | - POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > *ᵑgio > *ᵑgurio > /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, /kʷuriə/ > *ᵑgio > /n-kɛ/, /n-kɪ/, /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, /nɪ-kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kio/, /wi-ki/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /nɛ-kɛ͡a/ | |
| *ᵑg | *ᵑg | /ŋ/ in and /k/ in all other daughter languages. | POc *ko "thou" > *iᵑgo > /ikə/, /nikə/, /nɛk/, /niŋ/, /nɪŋ/, /nɪk/, /næk/, /nikɪ/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /niko/, /nik/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɪk/, /nɛ͡ak/ | |
| *mʷ | *mʷ | > /ŋ͡mʷ/ in most daughter languages. /ŋʷ/ in,, and. | - POc *mʷata "snake" > *mʷata > *ŋ͡mʷata > /ŋʷatə/, /ŋʷetə/, /ŋʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /n-ŋ͡mʷat/, /na-ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷaʔ/, /ŋ͡mʷaʔa/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷata/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋ͡mʷa/, /ŋ͡mʷat/, /ŋʷat/ | |
| *m | *m | > /m/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *mate "die, dead" > *mate > /met/, /met/, /mat/, /mat/, /mat/, /mat/, /maʔ/, /maʔ/, /mi͡at/, /mat/, /mate/, /mat/, /mat/, /mat/, /mat/, /mæt/, /mɛt/ | |
| *m | *mʷ | *m before a rounded vowel → same reflexes as with *mʷ. | - POc *mule "return" > *mule > *mule > /mʊl/, /mulʊ/, /mule/, /mʊl/, /mulæ/ > *mʷule > /ŋʷujə/, /ŋʷulə/, /ŋʷɔl/, /ŋ͡mʷʊl/, /ŋ͡mʷʊl/ | |
| *n / *ñ | *n | > /n/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *ñatuq "Burckella" > *natu > /nɔt/, /nɛ-nɛt/, /nɛʔ/, /nœt/, /natu/, - POc *ñamuk "mosquito" > *namu > *namu > /ni͡ɛm/, /næm/, /nɛm/, /n-nɛm/, /nɛ-nɛm/, /nœm/, /nam/, /nɛm/, /nɔm/, /nam/, /nam/, /nɞ-nɔm/ > *namuɣi > /ⁿdŋ͡mʷuɣ/, /muɣ/, /muː/, /namuɣ/ | |
| *ŋ | *ŋ | > /ŋ/ in all daughter languages. | - POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > *ŋai > *ŋari > /ŋeg͡ʟ/, /ŋɛr/, /n-ŋæj/, /n-ŋɪj/, /n-ŋɛj/, /na-ŋɛj/, /n-ŋɛr/, /ŋar/, > *ŋai > /ŋai/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /aŋæ/, /nɪ-ŋɪ/ | |
| *s / *c / *j | *s | Usually /s/ in the daughter languages, but can debuccalize or disappear under uncertain conditions: /s/ or /h/ in,, and /h/ or Ø in /s/ or /t/ or Ø in. | - POc *sake "up" > *saɣe > /aɣ/, /aɣ/, /ha/, /sa/, /ha/, /haɣ/, /saɣ/, /saɣ/, /si͡aɣ/, /saɣ/, /saɣe/, /sa/, /saɣ/, /sa/, /saː/, /haɣ/, /sɛ͡aɣ/ - POc *sale "to float" > *sale > /aj/, /al/, /hal/, /sal/, /sale/ | |
| *l | *l | > /l/ in all daughter languages except: /j/ in. | - POc *lalo-ᵑgu "my inside" > *lolo-ᵑgu "my mind" > /jɵ-k/, /lio-k/, /n-lɪ-k/, /n-lø-k/, /n-lɪ-ŋ/, /na-lɪ-k/, /n-lø-k/, /lʊ-k/, /lølø-k/, /lʊlʊ-k/, /lolo-k/, /na-llɔ-k/, /na-llʊ-k/, /na-llʊ-k/, /lʊlʊ-k/, /lɔlɔ-k/, /lɵ-k/ | |
| *r | *r | Preserved as an alveolar trill /r/ in most daughter languages, except: /g͡ʟ/ in /j/ in,,, /j/ in In syllable codas, *r disappears in with compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. | - POc *roŋoR "to hear" > *roŋo > /g͡ʟoŋ/, /roŋ/, /jɛŋ/, /jɔŋ/, /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, /rɔŋ/, /rʊŋ/, /roŋ-tɛɣ/, /rɔŋ-tɛ/, /roŋo/, /rɔŋɔ-tɛ/, /rɔŋ/, /rɔŋ/, /rɔŋ/, /rɔŋ-tæɣ/, /rɔŋ/ - POc *paRi "stingray" > *βari > /βɔg͡ʟ/, /βɛr/, /n-βæj/, /n-βɪj/, /n-βɪj/, /nɛ-βɛj/, /n-βɛr/, /fɛr/, /βœr/, /βɛr/, /βar/, /fɛr/, /βaːr/, /βɛ͡ar/, /βaj/, /βæː/, /nɛ-βɛr/ | |
| *R | *r / Ø | In most cases the reflexes are consistent across Torres–Banks languages: either they all lost *R, or all reflect them as *r. However, for about 20 words, the reflexes are inconsistent, with *R preserved in northern languages vs. lost further south; this is evidence that formed a network of separated dialects. | - POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > *ŋai > *ŋari > /ŋeg͡ʟ/, /ŋɛr/, /n-ŋæj/, /n-ŋɪj/, /n-ŋɛj/, /na-ŋɛj/, /n-ŋɛr/, /ŋar/, > *ŋai > /ŋai/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /ŋa/, /aŋæ/, /nɪ-ŋɪ/ - POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > *ᵑgio > *ᵑgurio > /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, /kʷuriə/ > *ᵑgio > /n-kɛ/, /n-kɪ/, /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, /nɪ-kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kio/, /wi-ki/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /kɪ/, /nɛ-kɛ͡a/ | |
| *q | Ø | Sequences of identical vowels that resulted after its loss were reduced to a single vowel, as in POc *saqat-i "bad" > *sati. | - POc *saqat "bad" > *saa > *saa > /ssa/, /hi͡a/, /sa/, /sa/, /sa/ > *sati > /sæt/, /sɛt/, /hɪt/, /hɛt/, /sɛʔ/, /sɛʔ/, /sɪt/ > *tatasi > /tatas/, /ttɪs/, /ttaːs/ | |
| *w | *w | Generally preserved only in the Torres languages and lost in the Banks languages. Sometimes retained between vowels: *marawa "spider" > *marawa > /marawa/. | - POc *waᵑga "canoe" > *waᵑga > /wakə/, /ekə/, /n-ɒk/, /n-ɔŋ/, /n-ɔk/, /n-ɔk/, /naka/, /ak/, /ak/, /aka/, /w-ak/, /ak/, /n-ak/, /n-ak/ - POc *ᵐbakewa "shark" > *ᵐbaɣewa > /poweɣə/, /pəɣɛwə/ > *ᵐbaɣea > /n-pəɣæ/, /n-pɛɣɛ/, /ᵐbɛɣiɛ/, /ᵐbɛɣɛ/, /pɛɣɛ/, /paɣɛ/ > *ᵐbaɣoa > /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/, /pɔɣɔ/, /ᵐboɣo/, /pɔɣɔ/, /paɣoa/, /ᵐbɔɣɔ/, /ᵐbɣɔ/, /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/ | |
| *y | *y | Generally lost in the daughter languages. Cases such as *maraya "eel" > *maraya, where reflexes such as /marea/ and /marɛ/ presuppose *marea, but /na-mja/ presupposes *maraa, can be taken as evidence that had not yet lost the phoneme. | - POc *kawaR "potent root" > *kawa > *kaya > *ɣaya > /ɣa/, /ɣi/, /n-ɣa/, /na-ɣa/, /na-ɣa/, /n-ɣa/, /ɣiɛ/, /ɣɪ/, /ɣɛ/, /ɣea/, /ɣɛ/, /ɣɛ/, /ɣɛ/, /ɣɛ/, /ɣɛ/ |
Grammar
Pronouns
The pronouns of Proto-Torres–Banks are :Numbers
The following are reconstructions for numbers 1–10 for PTB:- *tea, *tuwale
- *rua
- *tolu
- *βati
- *taβea-lima
- *laβea-tea
- *laβea-rua
- *laβea-tolu
- *laβea-βati
- *saŋaβulu