Chronemics
Chronemics is an anthropological, philosophical, and linguistic subdiscipline that describes how time is perceived, coded, and communicated across a given culture. It is one of several subcategories to emerge from the study of nonverbal communication.
According to the Encyclopedia of Special Education, "Chronemics includes time orientation, understanding and organisation, the use of and reaction to time pressures, the innate and learned awareness of time, by physically wearing or not wearing a watch, arriving, starting, and ending late or on time." A person's perception and values placed on time plays a considerable role in their communication process.
The use of time can affect lifestyles, personal relationships, and professional life. Across cultures, people usually have different time perceptions, and this can result in tension or friction between individuals. Time perceptions include punctuality, interactions, and willingness to wait.
Definition
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication, though it carries implications for verbal communication as well. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen.Fernando Poyatos, Professor Emeritus at the University of New Brunswick, coined the term chronemics in 1972. Thomas J. Bruneau, Professor Emeritus at Radford University who taught at the University of Guam in his early career and whose scholarship focused on silence, empathy, and intercultural communication, identified the parameters of this field of study in the late 1970s. Bruneau defined chronemics and specified the functions of time in human interactions as follows:
Time can be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most companies the boss can interrupt progress to hold an impromptu meeting in the middle of the work day, yet the average worker would have to make an appointment to see the boss. More realistically is mutual respect as being disrespectful of another's time, regardless of hierarchy, quickly results in conflict.
The way in which different cultures perceive time can influence communication as well.
Monochronic time
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into small precise units. Under this system, time is scheduled, arranged, and managed.The United States considers itself a monochronic society. This perception came about during the Industrial Revolution. Many Americans think of time as a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote regarding the American's viewpoint of time in the business world, "the schedule is sacred." Hall wrote that for monochronic cultures, such as the American culture, "time is tangible" and viewed as a commodity where "time is money" or "time is wasted." John Ivers, a professor of cultural paradigms, agrees with Edward Hall by stating, "In the market sense, monochronic people consume time." The result of this perspective is that monochronic cultures place a paramount value on schedules, tasks, and "getting the job done.
Monochronic time orientation is very prominent in core Germanic-speaking countries, Finland, France, Japan and the "Asian economic tigers".
If, for example, a businessperson from the United States has a meeting scheduled, they may grow frustrated if they are required to wait an hour for their partner to arrive. This is an example of a monochronic-time-oriented individual running in to conflict with a polychronic-time-oriented individual. Though the United States is seen as one of the most monochronic countries, it "has subcultures that may lean more to one side or the other of the monochronic–polychronic divide" within the states themselves. Southern states can be similarly compared to northern ones. Ivers pointed this out by comparing waiters in restaurants in northern and southern states. Waiters from the north are "to the point": they will "engage in little" and there is usually "no small talk." They try to be as efficient as possible, while those in the south work towards "establishing a nice, friendly, micro-relationship" with the customer. They are still considerate of time, but it is not the most important goal in the south.
The culture of African Americans might also be seen as polychronic.
Polychronic time
A polychronic time system means several things can be done at once. In polychronic time systems, a wider view of time is exhibited, and time is perceived in large fluid sections.Per some authors, examples of polychronic cultures are Latin American, African, Arab, South Asian, Mediterranean, and Native American cultures, although others have described this categorization as exoticizing and misleading. Supposedly, these cultures' view on time can be connected to "natural rhythms, the earth, and the seasons". These analogies can be understood and compared because natural events can occur spontaneously and sporadically, like polychronic-time-oriented people and polychronic-time-oriented cultures. A scenario would be an Inuk working in a factory in Alaska where the superiors blow a whistle to alert for break times, etc. The Inuit are not fond of that method because they determine their times by the sea tides, how long it takes place and how long it lasts. In polychronic cultures, "time spent with others" is considered a "task" and of importance to one's daily regimen.
Cultures considered polychronic purportedly are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for time and more on tradition and relationships rather than on tasks. Polychronic societies have no problem being late for an appointment if they are deeply focused on some work or in a meeting that ran past schedule, because the concept of time is fluid and can easily expand or contract as need be. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules.
Measuring polychronicity
Bluedorn, Allen C., Carol Felker Kaufman, and Paul M. Lane concluded that "developing an understanding of the monochronic/polychronic continuum will not only result in a better self-management but will also allow more rewarding job performances and relationships with people from different cultures and traditions." Researchers have examined that predicting someone's polychronicity plays an important role in productivity and individual well-being. Researchers have developed the following questionnaires to measure polychronicity:- Inventory of Polychronic Values , developed by Bluedorn et al., which is a 10-item scale designed to assess "the extent to which people in a culture prefer to be engaged in two or more tasks or events simultaneously and believe their preference is the best way to do things."
- Polychronic Attitude Index , developed by Kaufman-Scarborough & Lindquist in 1991, which is a 4-item scale measuring individual preference for polychronicity, in the following statements:
- "I do not like to juggle several activities at the same time".
- "People should not try to do many things at once".
- "When I sit down at my desk, I work on one project at a time".
- "I am comfortable doing several things at the same time".
Predictable patterns between cultures with differing time systems
| Monochronic people | Polychronic people |
| Do one thing at a time | Do many things at once |
| Concentrate on a task set before them | Concentrate on an event happening around them |
| Consider time commitments seriously | Consider objectives seriously |
| Are low-context and need information | Are high-context and already have information |
| Are committed to the job and end results | Are committed to people and relationships |
| Dedicate themselves to plans | Change plans often and easily |
| Are more concerned with privacy and individual ownership | Are more concerned with community and shared connections |
| Emphasize prompt time recognition, regardless of relationship or circumstances | Emphasize response based on nature of relationship and circumstances |
| Have strong tendency to build temporary, practical relationships | Have strong tendency to build lifetime, familial relationships |
Cross-cultural perspectives on time
Conflicting attitudes between the monochronic and polychronic perceptions of time can interfere with cross-cultural relations and play a role in these domains, and as a result, challenges can occur within an otherwise assimilated culture. One example in the United States is the Hawaiian culture, which employs two time systems: Haole time and Hawaiian time.According to Ashley Fulmer and Brandon Crosby, "as intercultural interactions increasingly become the norm rather than the exception, the ability of individuals, groups, and organizations to manage time effectively in cross-cultural settings is critical to the success of these interactions".
Time orientations
The way an individual perceives time and the role time plays in their lives is a learned perspective. As discussed by Alexander Gonzalez and Phillip Zimbardo, "every child learns a time perspective that is appropriate to the values and needs of his society".There are four basic psychological time orientations:
- Past
- Time-line
- Present
- Future
The use of time as a communicative channel can be a powerful, yet subtle, force in face-to-face interactions. Some of the more recognizable types of interaction that use time are:
;Regulating interaction: This is shown to aid in the orderly transition of conversational turn-taking. When the speaker is opening the floor for a response, they will pause. However, when no response is desired, the speaker will talk a faster pace with minimal pause.
;Expressing intimacy: As relationships become more intimate, certain changes are made to accommodate the new relationship status. Some of the changes that are made include lengthening the time spent on mutual gazes, increasing the amount of time doing tasks for or with the other person and planning for the future by making plans to spend more time together.
;Affect management: The onset of powerful emotions can cause a stronger affect, ranging from joy to sorrow or even to embarrassment. Some of the behaviors associated with negative affects include decreased time of gaze and awkwardly long pauses during conversations. When this happens, it is common for the individuals to try and decrease any negative affects and subsequently strengthen positive affects.
;Evoking emotion: Time can be used to evoke emotions in an interpersonal relationship by communicating the value of the relationship. For example, when someone with whom one has a close relationship is late, one may not take it personally, especially if that is characteristic of them. However, when meeting with a total stranger, disrespect for the value of one's time may be taken personally and could even cause one to display negative emotions if and when they do arrive for the meeting.
;Facilitating service and task goals: Professional settings can sometimes give rise to interpersonal relations which are quite different from other "normal" interactions. For example, the societal norms that dictate minimal touch between strangers are clearly altered if one member of the dyad is a doctor, and the environment is that of a hospital examination room.