Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran
Political repression has been exercised in Iran since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which led Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to power and thus established an Islamic theocracy combining Islamic principles with authoritarian policy. The Islamic Republic has throughout its history used executions, massacres and torture against those perceived as potential dissidents. Survivors described being blindfolded, waiting in the corridors to be brought before the committee, and witnessing prisoners being taken to their executions, including those whose health had deteriorated due to torture. It has been alleged that these techniques are employed with the intent of silencing critics of the regime, especially female dissidents. In 2024, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran published a report that categorised the 1981–1982 massacres and 1988 executions as crimes against humanity and genocide.
Establishment of the Islamic Republic and early repression (1979–1989)
The 1979 revolution and the rise of the Islamic Republic
The 1979 Islamic Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, marked a significant shift in governance for Iran. Following the revolution, political power was held by the clerical leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, who sought to establish an Islamic state based on Wilayat al-Faqih, a doctrine that grants supreme political authority to the highest-ranking cleric.Having overthrown the previous government due to its own oppression of civil liberties, Khomeini was first viewed as a unifying figure who did not seek power but only to help free the Iranian people as well as an ally of the different branches of the Iranian opposition. Subsequently, Khomeini's regime moved to systemically and swiftly eliminate rival political groups.
The 1980s: revolutionary purges and the consolidation of power
1981-1982 massacres
The 1981 massacre was orchestrated by the Islamic Republic of Iran, which targeted perceived political and religious opponents of the Islamic Republic. Among those targeted were intellectuals, artists, scientists, liberals, monarchists, socialists, ethnic minorities, as well as members of religious groups such as the Bahá'í Faith. Spanning from June 1981 to March 1982, this mass violence was part of the Cultural Revolution, which was initiated by Ayatollah Khomeini with the goal of removing non-Islamic influences from Iranian society. This purge led to the deaths of thousands of political and religious dissidents, as well as critics of the regime.In 2024, the United Nations Special Rapporteur classified the crimes committed during this period as both genocide and crimes against humanity. The report called for the establishment of an independent international body to investigate and hold those responsible accountable for their actions during the massacre.
1988 executions of the political opposition
In mid-1988, Ayatollah Khomeini, the Supreme Leader of Iran, ordered the execution of thousands of political prisoners. These executions took place over a span of five months, beginning in July, across at least 32 cities in Iran. The executions were conducted without any legal process, with trials that focused neither on determining guilt nor innocence. Many prisoners were subjected to torture, and the executions were carried out in secrecy. The exact number of those killed remains uncertain, but estimates range from 2,800 to 5,000 people were killed, according to Human Rights Watch, with some human rights organizations such as Amnesty International estimating at least 5,000 deaths.Most of the victims were supporters of the People's Mujahedin of Iran, but individuals from other leftist groups, such as the Fedaian and the Tudeh Party, were also executed. While one possible motive for the killings was retaliation for the MeK's Operation Mersad in 1988, there were also victims unrelated to the operation. Ayatollah Montazeri, the Deputy Supreme Leader at the time, claimed that the regime had planned these executions for years, using the MeK operation as a pretext. Survivors have called for accountability, and the event has been condemned by the United Nations and various countries as one of Iran's greatest crimes against humanity.
Political repression under Ali Khamenei (1989–present)
The Transition to Khamenei's leadership
In 1989, following the death of Ayatollah Khomeini, Ali Khamenei assumed the role of Supreme Leader of Iran. A former president and a close ally of Khomeini, Khamenei continued the policies of the Islamic Republic. According to The Guardian, he acted by "eliminating opponents and rewarding those loyal to him". Among those targeted by Khamenei were poets.Repression of the 2009 protests
Following the declaration of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as the winner of the presidential elections amidst allegations by the Iranian opposition of widespread electoral fraud, there were widespread protests known collectively as the Green Movement. Protesters demanded the annulment of the election results and the resignation of the government, accusing the regime of rigging the election.In response to the protests, the Iranian government used police, the IRGC and its paramilitary Basij militia. Basij members carried out night raids as well as raids against the homes of Iranians during protests. According to the Los Angeles Times, militiamen from Ansar-e Hezbollah warned that they would patrol the streets to enforce law and order.
Thousands were arrested, hundreds were killed, and many others were tortured or forced into making televised confessions.
Public protests erupted across several cities in Iran starting on December 28, 2017, and continued into early 2018, often referred to as the Dey protests. The protests initially began in Mashhad, Iran's second-largest city, focusing on economic issues, but quickly expanded to include political opposition to the theocratic government and Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. Demonstrators expressed their anger through a variety of chants directed at the regime and its leadership, including the provocative "Death to the dictator!" aimed at Khamenei. According to The Washington Post, these protests, along with attacks on government buildings, disrupted a regime with little tolerance for dissent, with some protesters even urging security forces to join them.
In a 2020 report by Human Rights Watch, it was found that Iranian authorities continued to tightly suppress peaceful activism, targeting human rights defenders, lawyers, and political prisoners who spoke out against government corruption, mismanagement, and repression. The regime's response to protests, including those in November 2019, involved excessive and lethal force according to HRW. Security forces killing at least 230 people, according to official figures. Iran also down the internet nationwide to prevent the spread of dissent.
According to HRW, the Iranian government is a world leader in the carrying out of executions, performing 233 executions in 2020. Among those executed were people convicted of crimes when they were children. Human rights defenders, ethnic minorities, and political activists face arbitrary imprisonment, torture, and unfair trials according to HRW. The government's actions, including the imprisonment of peaceful dissenters and the failure to hold security forces accountable, are said to have deepened public frustration with the regime.
2022 protests
In September 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that widespread protests in Iran were met with excessive and lethal force from security forces, including unlawful killings, torture, sexual assault, and enforced disappearances of protesters, including women and children. HRW reported at least 500 deaths, including those of 68 children. Security forces reportedly used various types of bullets to shoot victims. HRW also reported that a 17-year-old boy, a high school student, was sexually assaulted, and another was pushed onto a lit gas range and tortured during her arrest. HRW also found that Iranian interrogators used needles to torture a boy.Before the anniversary of Mahsa Amini's death approached in 2023, HRW reported that Iranian authorities intensified their repression of dissent, targeting activists, students, and families of those killed in the 2022 protests. HRW reported that government efforts to enforce compulsory hijab laws increased, alongside arrests of women's rights defenders, artists, and lawyers.
During the Iran–Israel war
Following the onset of the Iran–Israel war, Amnesty International reported that Iranian authorities have escalated their political repression by targeting individuals accused of espionage or collaboration with Israel. The government implemented calls for expedited trials and executions, targeting those the Iranian government accused of "enmity against God" and "corruption on earth," which is punishable by death in Iran. Amnesty International expressed grave concerns about what it called the systematic abuse of the death penalty. Amnesty warned that these charges are often used to punish individuals for peacefully exercising their rights to freedom of expression. The Iranian government also targeted family members of the detained and those already on death row. Amnesty reported a heightened risk of execution for individuals like Swedish-Iranian academic Ahmadreza Djalali and others sentenced after unfair trials and forced confessions.In an effort to increase the use of the death penalty, Iran's parliament fast-tracked legislation to automatically assign death sentences for espionage or cooperation with hostile governments. In its report, Amnesty International said the bill is aimed to streamline executions for national security charges, including those not involving intentional killing. Amnesty International said this a violation of international legal standards. Amnesty reported that during the war, the Iranian regime is repressing dissent through arbitrary arrests, forced confessions, and executions, which instill fear and maintain control over the Iranian people during the conflict.
The Long War Journal wrote that Iranian authorities have cracked down on citizens it accuses of sharing online content perceived as supportive of Israel. It arrested at least 19 individuals in Hormozgan and Yazd provinces for allegedly spreading misinformation or photographing sensitive sites. Iranian officials cited Article 8 of a national security law, which prescribes prison terms for such actions, and said their actions were done in order to combat "hostile measures." The regime also cracked down on internet access following, a move often used to stifle dissent. In response, Elon Musk has stated that Starlink is now functioning in Iran. The Long War Journal wrote that at least 10 individuals were detained on espionage charges linked to Israel, with two executed at the onset of the conflict.