Polish people
Polish people, or Poles, are a West Slavic ethnic group and nation who share a common history, culture, the Polish language and are identified with the country of Poland in Central Europe. The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland, regardless of heritage or ethnicity. The majority of Poles adhere to Roman Catholicism.
The population of self-declared Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of an overall population of 38,512,000, of whom 36,522,000 declared Polish alone. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Eurasia, the Americas, and Australasia. Today, the largest urban concentrations of Poles are within the Warsaw metropolitan area and the Katowice urban area.
Ethnic Poles are considered to be the descendants of the ancient West Slavic Lechites and other tribes that inhabited the Polish territories during the late antiquity period. Poland's recorded history dates back over a thousand years to 930–960 AD, when the Western Polans – an influential tribe in the Greater Poland region – united various Lechitic clans under what became the Piast dynasty, thus creating the first Polish state. The subsequent Christianization of Poland by the Catholic Church, in 966 CE, marked Poland's advent to the community of Western Christendom. However, throughout its existence, the Polish state followed a tolerant policy towards minorities resulting in numerous ethnic and religious identities of the Poles, such as Polish Jews.
Exonyms
The Polish endonym Polacy is derived from the Western Polans, a Lechitic tribe which inhabited lands around the River Warta in Greater Poland region from the mid-6th century onward. The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Indo European *pleh₂-, which means flat or flatland and corresponds to the topography of a region that the Western Polans initially settled. The prefix pol- is used in most world languages when referring to Poles.Among other foreign exonyms for the Polish people are Lithuanian Lenkai; Hungarian Lengyelek; Turkish Leh; Lehastan; and . These stem from Lechia, the ancient name for Poland, or from the tribal Lendians. Their names are equally derived from the Old Polish term lęda, meaning plain or field.
Ethnogenesis
The Polish people are descended from a blend of various ancient ethnic groups that inhabited the territory of modern-day Poland before and during late antiquity. The area was settled by numerous tribes and cultures, including Baltic, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Thracian, and possibly remnants of earlier Proto-Indo-Europeans and non-Indo-European peoples. Archaeological evidence from the Lusatian culture, as well as the successive Pomeranian, Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures, points to a diverse demographic landscape in prehistoric Poland. These cultures were associated with different ethnic groups, such as the Celts, Germanic tribes like the Vandals and Goths, and the Balts in the northeast.During the Migration Period, the region was becoming increasingly settled by the early Slavs. The Slavic settlers organised into tribal units and assimilated the remnants of earlier populations, thus contributing to the West Slavic ethnogenesis and identity of the numerous Polish tribes and Lechites. The names of many tribes are found on the list compiled by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the Baltic Sea coast and in Greater Poland. The ultimate tribal undertaking resulted in a lasting political structure and the creation of a Polish state.
Language
is the native language of most Poles. It is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group and the sole official language in the Republic of Poland. Its written form uses the Polish alphabet, which is the basic Latin alphabet with the addition of six diacritic marks, totalling 32 letters. Bearing relation to Czech and Slovak, it has been profoundly influenced by Latin, German and other languages over the course of history. Poland is linguistically homogeneous – nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their mother tongue.Polish-speakers use the language in a uniform manner throughout most of Poland, though numerous dialects and a vernacular language in certain regions coexist alongside standard Polish. The most common lects in Poland are Silesian, spoken in Upper Silesia, and Kashubian, widely spoken in historic Eastern Pomerania, today in the northwestern part of Poland. Kashubian possesses its own status as a separate language. The Goral people in the mountainous south use their own nonstandard dialect, accenting and different intonation.
The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the border changes and population transfers that followed the Second World War – forced expulsions and resettlement during that period contributed to the country's current linguistic homogeneity.
History synopsis
Protohistoric
During the Neolithic period, farming communities began to spread across the contemporary Polish lands, introducing agriculture, pottery, and domesticated animals. The Lengyel, Funnelbeaker, and Globular Amphora cultures were notable for their megalithic tombs, settlements, and ceramics. The Bronze Age precipitated considerable advancements in craftsmanship with the emergence of the Unetice culture and later the Lusatian culture, the latter of which built the fortified settlement at Biskupin in the 8th century BCE. These communities engaged in bronze metallurgy, long-distance trade, and complex burial rites, including urnfield cremation cemeteries. Among some of the significant archaeological or megalithic sites in Poland are Bodzia, Borkowo, Nowa Cerekwia, Odry, Węsiory, Bronocice and Wietrzychowice.Classical
Poland's history during classical antiquity is primarily reconstructed through archaeological evidence, as the region lay outside the Roman Empire and produced few written records. In the 1st century BCE, the area was inhabited by Celtic tribes, notably the Boii, who established settlements in Lower Silesia. These groups were part of the La Tène culture, recognised for advanced metallurgy, intricate ornamentation, and distinctive burial customs. Evidence from sites along the Amber Road, a major trade route linking the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean, indicates Poland's role as a corridor for goods like amber and ceramics during this period.In the early centuries CE, the Przeworsk culture flourished in central and southern Poland, succeeding Celtic presence. The Przeworsk culture is notable for its cremation burials, iron weaponry, and Roman imports. Roman coins and military artifacts discovered in the Kuyavia region suggest contact between local populations and the Roman Empire, possibly through trade or mercenary service. By the 2nd century CE, the Wielbark culture, linked to Germanic peoples, began to dominate northern and central Poland and gradually replaced the earlier Oksywie culture. The Wielbark people did not bury weapons in graves, a practice distinct from their Przeworsk neighbours, but their cemeteries reveal long-distance contacts through Roman goods, including Roman glassware. The eventual decline of the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries coincided with the southward relocation of the Goths, leaving behind a cultural vacuum that was gradually filled by Slavic migration. The incoming tribes built defensive settlements called gords across much of Poland.
Medieval
The medieval history of Poland began in the 10th century with the rise of the Piast dynasty. Under Mieszko I, who accepted Christianity in 966 AD, Poland entered the sphere of Western Latin Christendom. This baptism marked the beginning of statehood and allowed the formation of diplomatic ties with the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy. His son, Bolesław I the Brave, expanded the kingdom and was crowned the first King of Poland in 1025, establishing Poland as a regional power. However, his successors struggled to maintain control, and the country faced internal unrest, succession disputes, and pagan uprisings that weakened central authority.In 1079, Bolesław II the Bold entered a conflict with the Catholic Church, culminating in the execution of Bishop Stanislaus, which led to his downfall and exile. After the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138, Poland entered a period of fragmentation, as the kingdom was divided among his sons into regional duchies. This weakened central authority and made the country vulnerable to external threats, including devastating Mongol invasions in the 13th century. However, the era also saw the growth of towns under Magdeburg Law, the settlement of foreign populations, and the founding of many institutions. The Teutonic Order, invited to confront pagan Old Prussians by Konrad I of Masovia, established its own state in the northeastern Baltic region, eventually becoming a hostile neighbour.
Poland’s reunification began under Władysław I the Elbow-high, who was crowned at Wawel Cathedral in 1320, and continued under his son, Casimir III the Great, who strengthened royal authority, modernised the legal system, and promoted education by founding the first Polish university in 1364. In 1385, the Union of Krewo united the Kingdom of Poland and the neighbouring Grand Duchy of Lithuania under the Jagiellonian dynasty, forming a powerful Christian alliance in East-Central Europe. The Battle of Grunwald in 1410 marked a turning point in the struggle against the Teutonic State. By the late Middle Ages, Poland had emerged as a major European kingdom with growing political, cultural, and military influence.
Early modern
Between 1500 and the early 17th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth emerged as one of the most powerful and expansive states in Europe. Established through the Union of Lublin in 1569, it united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under a single elected monarch and a shared parliament. Governed by a unique system of noble democracy, the Commonwealth was characterised by a politically active nobility who wielded considerable political influence. This period is often regarded as Poland’s Golden Age, marked by territorial expansion and Polonisation, but also by religious tolerance enshrined in the Warsaw Confederation of 1573, and a flourishing of intellectual and cultural life. However, the death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 ushered in an era of instability driven by the weaknesses of an elective monarchy. The Vasa dynasty ruled from 1587 to 1668, beginning with Sigismund III, who also claimed the Swedish throne and moved Poland's capital from Kraków to Warsaw in 1596.The mid-17th century marked the beginning of a prolonged period of decline for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. A series of destructive conflicts severely weakened the state and destabilised its frontiers, notably Ukraine's struggle for independence from Poland during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish Deluge. Simultaneous wars with the Ottoman Empire and Russia further strained the Commonwealth’s resources and exposed its military and administrative vulnerabilities. Internally, governance was crippled by the liberum veto, a parliamentary mechanism that allowed any deputy to block legislation and dissolve the Sejm, rendering meaningful reform nearly impossible. Although symbolic military successes occurred, most notably John III Sobieski’s decisive role in the Battle of Vienna, the victories could not compensate for the growing structural dysfunction.
In the 18th century, the situation deteriorated further. The Saxon kings from the House of Wettin, who ruled Poland in personal union, presided over a period of deepening political stagnation and increasing foreign interference. Despite reformist efforts by Stanislaus II Augustus, culminating in the progressive Constitution of May 3, 1791 aimed to strengthen central authority and modernise the state, these initiatives were met with hostility from neighbouring powers. In response, Russia, Prussia, and Austria orchestrated a series of territorial partitions in 1772, 1793, and 1795, thus erasing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the map. By the close of the 18th century, Poland had ceased to exist as a sovereign state, initiating a long period of interchanging foreign rule that would last until the early 20th century.