Pentatomidae


Pentatomidae is a family of insects belonging to the order Hemiptera, generally called shield bugs or stink bugs. Pentatomidae is the largest family in the superfamily Pentatomoidea, and contains around 900 genera and over 4700 species. As hemipterans, the pentatomids have piercing sucking mouthparts, and most are phytophagous, including several species which are severe pests on agricultural crops. However, some species, particularly in the subfamily Asopinae, are predatory and may be considered beneficial.

Etymology

The name "Pentatomidae" is from the Greek pente meaning "five" and tomos meaning "section", and refers to the five segments of their antennae. Pentatomids are generally called "shield bugs" in British English, or "stink bugs" in American English. However, the term shield bugs is also applied broadly to include several related families, or specifically only to refer to species in the family Acanthosomatidae. The term shield bug refers to the generalized body shape of adult bugs in these families which resembles a heraldic shield when viewed from above.
The American name "stink bug" is specific to the Pentatomidae, and refers to their ability to release a pungent defensive spray when threatened, disturbed, or crushed. The composition of this spray may vary between species, and even by sex or age, but generally includes aldehydes and alkanes. Descriptions of the smells vary widely, and include oily, dusty, woody and earthy, and like coriander. In some species, the liquid contains cyanide compounds and a rancid almond scent, used to protect themselves and discourage predators.
The term "stink bug" may also be a vernacular for unrelated insects such as pinacate beetles.

Description

All pentatomids have 5-segmented antennae, and 3 tarsal segments on each foot. They generally have a large triangular scutellum in the center of the back. The body shape of adult pentatomids is generally "shieldlike," when viewed from above, but this varies between species, and is not true for the immature nymphal stages. The forewings of stink bugs are called hemelytra, with the basal half thickened while the apex is membranous. At rest, the wings are laid across the back of the insect, with the membranous wingtips overlapping. The hindwings are entirely membranous.

Economics

Several stink bugs and shield bugs are considered agricultural pests, because they can grow into large populations that feed on crops, damage production, and they are resistant to many pesticides. They are a threat to cotton, corn, sorghum, soybeans, native and ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, weeds, and many cultivated crops.
In Mexico, some species of stink bugs are called jumil, chinche de monte, xotlinilli, or chumil. They are most often eaten in the states of Morelos and Guerrero. The flavor is sometimes said to resemble cinnamon, or sometimes a bitter medicinal flavor. Jumiles may be used for making sauces or as a taco filling.
Since its recent arrival in the U.S., the brown marmorated stink bug population has grown significantly. As of October 2014, brown marmorated stink bugs can be found in 41 out of 50 states within the U.S. In 2016 New Zealand's MPI put out an alert to prevent this invasive species from entering via imported cargo.

Pest control and management

Changes in winter temperatures may exacerbate the threat posed by Pentatomidae pest species. Habitats that have been identified as suitable for Pentatomidae expansion, such as the Midwest region of the United States, are likely to be heavily impacted by the increased threat. Furthermore, temperature affects life table parameters, such as survival, development, reproduction, and daily mortality, which can impact a variety of crops depending on the injury stink bugs have on them.
As the effects of climate change increase the impacts of stinkbugs on crops, improving efficacy of existing controls and developing new solutions will be critical for pest control. Chemical control programs are commonly used to manage stink bugs; however, there is evidence of increasing insecticide resistance that will decrease the efficacy of these programs over time. Alternatives to insecticides include the removal of symbionts, using traps that disrupt stinkbug vibratory communication and chemical pheromone traps.

Taxonomy

There are several subfamilies, of which the Aphylinae is often given family status, but is here retained as a subfamily, following Grazia et al.. The subfamilies include:
  • Aphylinae Bergroth, 1906 - Australia
  1. Aphylus Bergroth, 1906
  2. Neoaphylum Štys & Davidová-Vilímová, 2001
  • Asopinae Spinola, 1850 - Worldwide
  • * Troilus Stål, 1868
  • Cyrtocorinae Distant, 1880 - Americas
  1. Ceratozygum Horváth, 1916
  2. Cyphothyrea Horváth, 1916
  3. Cyrtocoris White, 1842
  4. Pseudocyrtocoris Jensen-Haarup, 1926
  1. Anisoedessa Nunes & Fernandes, 2019
  2. Brachystethus Laporte, 1833
  3. Doesburgedessa Fernandes, 2010
  4. Edessa (bug) Fabricius, 1803
  5. Grammedessa Correia & Fernandes, 2016
  6. Lopadusa Stål, 1860
  7. Mediocampus Thomas, 1994
  8. Neopharnus Van Duzee, 1910
  9. Olbia (bug) Stål, 1862
  10. Pantochlora Stål, 1870
  11. Paraedessa Silva & Fernandes, 2013
  12. Peromatus Amyot & Serville, 1843
  13. Pharnus Stål, 1867
  14. Plagaedessa Almeida & Fernandes, 2018
  15. Platistocoris Rider, 1998
  16. Praepharnus Barber & Bruner, 1932
  1. Serbana borneensis Distant, 1906
  • Stirotarsinae
  1. Stirotarsus Bergroth, 1911
  1. Antillosciocoris Thomas, 2005
  2. Asopus Burmeister, 1834
  3. Jostenicoris Arnold, 2011

European species

European species within this family include:Acrosternum arabicum Wagner, 1959Acrosternum heegeri Fieber, 1861Acrosternum malickyi Josifov & Heiss, 1989Acrosternum millierei Acrosternum rubescens Aelia acuminata Aelia albovittata Fieber, 1868Aelia angusta Stehlik, 1976Aelia cognata Fieber, 1868Aelia cribrosa Fieber, 1868Aelia furcula Fieber, 1868Aelia germari Kuster, 1852Aelia klugii Hahn, 1833Aelia notata Rey, 1887Aelia rostrata Boheman, 1852Aelia sibirica Reuter, 1884Aelia virgata Ancyrosoma leucogrammes Andrallus spinidens Antheminia absinthii Antheminia aliena Antheminia lunulata Antheminia pusio Antheminia varicornis Apodiphus amygdali Arma custos Arma insperata Horvath, 1899Asaroticus solskyi Jakovlev, 1873Bagrada abeillei Puton, 1881Bagrada confusa Horvath, 1936Bagrada elegans Puton, 1873Bagrada funerea Horvath, 1901Bagrada hilaris Bagrada stolida Bagrada turcica Horvath, 1936Brachynema cinctum Brachynema germarii Brachynema purpureomarginatum Capnoda batesoni Jakovlev, 1889Carpocoris coreanus Distant, 1899Carpocoris fuscispinus Carpocoris melanocerus Carpocoris pudicus Carpocoris purpureipennis Chlorochroa juniperina Chlorochroa pinicola Chlorochroa reuteriana Chroantha ornatula Codophila varia Crypsinus angustatus Derula flavoguttata Mulsant & Rey, 1856Dolycoris baccarum Dolycoris numidicus Horvath, 1908Dryadocoris apicalis Dybowskyia reticulata Dyroderes umbraculatus Eudolycoris alluaudi Eurydema cyanea Eurydema dominulus Eurydema eckerleini Josifov, 1961Eurydema fieberi Schummel, 1837Eurydema gebleri Kolenati, 1846Eurydema herbacea Eurydema lundbaldi Lindberg, 1960Eurydema maracandica Oshanin, 1871Eurydema nana Fuente, 1971Eurydema oleracea Eurydema ornata Eurydema rotundicollis Eurydema rugulosa Eurydema sea Pericart & De la Rosa 2004Eurydema spectabilis Horvath, 1882Eurydema ventralis Kolenati, 1846Eysarcoris aeneus Eysarcoris ventralis Eysarcoris venustissimus Graphosoma interruptum White, 1839Graphosoma italicum Graphosoma lineatum Graphosoma melanoxanthum Horvath, 1903Graphosoma semipunctatum Halyomorpha halys Holcogaster fibulata Holcostethus albipes Holcostethus evae Ribes, 1988Holcostethus sphacelatus Jalla dumosa Leprosoma inconspicuum Baerensprung, 1859Leprosoma stali Douglas & Scott, 1868Leprosoma tuberculatum Jakovlev, 1874Macrorhaphis acuta Dallas, 1851Mecidea lindbergi Wagner, 1954Mecidea pallidissima Jensen-Haarup, 1922Menaccarus arenicola Menaccarus deserticola Jakovlev, 1900Menaccarus dohrnianus Menaccarus turolensis Fuente, 1971Mustha spinosula Neostrachia bisignata Neottiglossa bifida Neottiglossa flavomarginata Neottiglossa leporina Neottiglossa lineolata Neottiglossa pusilla Nezara viridula Palomena formosa Vidal, 1940Palomena prasina Palomena viridissima Pentatoma rufipes Peribalus congenitus Putshkov, 1965Peribalus inclusus Peribalus strictus Perillus bioculatus Picromerus bidens Picromerus brachypterus Ahmad & Onder, 1990Picromerus conformis Picromerus nigridens Piezodorus lituratus Piezodorus punctipes Puton, 1889Piezodorus teretipes Pinthaeus sanguinipes Podops annulicornis Jakovlev, 1877Podops calligerus Horvath, 1887Podops curvidens Costa, 1843Podops dilatatus Puton, 1873Podops inunctus Podops rectidens Horvath, 1883Putonia torrida Stål, 1872Rhacognathus punctatus Rhaphigaster nebulosa Rubiconia intermedia Schyzops aegyptiaca Sciocoris angularis Puton, 1889Sciocoris angusticollis Puton, 1895Sciocoris conspurcatus Klug, 1845Sciocoris convexiusculus Puton, 1874Sciocoris cursitans Sciocoris deltocephalus Fieber, 1861Sciocoris distinctus Fieber, 1851Sciocoris galiberti Ribaut, 1926Sciocoris helferi Fieber, 1851Sciocoris hoberlandti Wagner, 1954Sciocoris homalonotus Fieber, 1851Sciocoris luteolus Fieber, 1861Sciocoris macrocephalus Fieber, 1851Sciocoris maculatus Fieber, 1851Sciocoris microphthalmus Flor, 1860Sciocoris modestus Horvath, 1903Sciocoris ochraceus Fieber, 1861Sciocoris orientalis Linnavuori, 1960Sciocoris pallens Klug, 1845Sciocoris pentheri Wagner, 1953Sciocoris pictus Wagner, 1959Sciocoris sideritidis Wollaston, 1858Sciocoris sulcatus Fieber, 1851Sciocoris umbrinus Sciocoriscanariensis Lindberg, 1953Scotinophara sicula Scotinophara subalpina Stagonomus amoenus Stagonomus bipunctatus Stagonomus devius Seidenstucker, 1965Stagonomus grenieri Staria lunata Stenozygum coloratum Sternodontus binodulus Jakovlev, 1893Sternodontus obtusus Mulsant & Rey, 1856Tarisa dimidiatipes Puton, 1874Tarisa elevata Reuter, 1901Tarisa flavescens Amyot & Serville, 1843Tarisa pallescens Jakovlev, 1871Tarisa salsolae Kerzhner, 1964Tarisa subspinosa Tholagmus flavolineatus Tholagmus strigatus Trochiscocoris hemipterus Trochiscocoris rotundatus Horvath, 1895Troilus luridus Ventocoris achivus Ventocoris falcatus Ventocoris fischeri Ventocoris halophilum Ventocoris modestus Ventocoris philalyssum Ventocoris ramburi Ventocoris rusticus Ventocoris trigonus Vilpianus galii