Pedometer
A pedometer, or step-counter, is a device, usually portable and electronic or electromechanical, that counts each step a person takes by detecting the motion of the person's hands or hips. Because the distance of each person's step varies, an informal calibration, performed by the user, is required if presentation of the distance covered in a unit of length is desired, though there are now pedometers that use electronics and software to determine how a person's step varies automatically. Distance traveled can be measured directly by a GPS receiver.
Used originally by sports and physical fitness enthusiasts, pedometers are now becoming popular as an everyday exercise counter and motivator. Often worn on the belt and kept on all day, it can record how many steps the wearer has walked that day, and thus the kilometers or miles. Some pedometers will also erroneously record movements other than walking, such as bending to tie one's shoes, or road bumps incurred while riding a vehicle, though the most advanced devices record fewer of these 'false steps'. Step counters can give encouragement to compete with oneself in getting fit and losing weight.
A total of 10,000 steps per day, equivalent to, is recommended by some to be the benchmark for an active lifestyle. However, this target originated in a marketing campaign by a manufacturer of pedometers, and evidence suggests that most health benefit can be obtained by around 7,000 steps per day. Thirty minutes of moderate walking are equivalent to 3,000-4,000 steps as determined by a pedometer. Step counters are being integrated into an increasing number of portable consumer electronic devices such as music players, smartphones, mobile phones and watches
Usage
Pedometers can be a motivation tool for people wanting to increase their physical activity. Various websites exist to allow people to track their progress; however, many will also find entering their daily step count and a heart-beat count onto a calendar to be motivational as well.Clinical studies have shown Pedometers to increase physical activity and reduce blood pressure levels and Body Mass Index. A study published in the Journal of The American Medical Association Nov. 2007 concluded, "The results suggest that the use of a pedometer is associated with significant increases in physical activity and significant decreases in body mass index and blood pressure."
A daily target of 10,000 steps was first proposed.
The target has been recommended by the US surgeon general and by the UK Department of Health. The main criticisms of setting a universal target are that it is not achievable for older persons with mobility problems or people with chronic diseases, but on the other hand, the target is probably too low for children.
One criticism of the pedometer is that it does not record intensity, but this can be done by making step goals time limited.
History
envisioned a mechanical pedometer as a device with military applications. The Germanic National Museum in Nuremberg has a pedometer in its collection from around 1590. In 1685 Gottfried Leibniz wrote of his time in France, "...several years ago I saw for the first time an instrument which, when carried, automatically records the number of steps taken by a pedestrian." In 1780 Abraham-Louis Perrelet of Switzerland created a pedometer, measuring the steps and distance while walking; it was based on a 1770 mechanism of his to power a self-winding watch. A mechanical pedometer obtained from France was introduced in the US by Thomas Jefferson. It is not known if he modified the design; although this pedometer is widely attributed to Jefferson, proof is difficult to obtain as he did not apply for patents on any of his inventions.Japan
In 1963, in the lead up to the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Iwao Ohya, head of one of Tokyo's biggest clinics, told Tokyo engineer Juri Kato of clockmaker Yamasa Tokei Keiki of his concern at the low levels of physical activity in 1960s Japan; the solution, said Ohya, was for everyone to walk 10,000 steps a day. After two years of development, Juri Kato produced the manpokei — the "ten-thousand step-meter".The impact of the manpokei pedometer was significant. Soon after, the Japan 10,000-step Walking Association sprang up, which shortly had chapters in all 47 prefectures, organising regular walks that could be measured with the Yamasa device.
On 26 February 1980, Juri Kato's son Yasuji Kato filed a pedometer patent with the USPTO, currently assigned to Yamasa Tokei Meter Co Ltd.
In 2015, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare also recommended 10,000 steps per day. However, this recommendation is not based on solid evidence.
Technology
The technology for a pedometer includes a mechanical sensor and software that counts steps. Early forms used a mechanical switch to detect steps together with a simple counter. If one shakes these devices, one hears a lead ball sliding back and forth, or a pendulum striking stops as it swings. Today advanced step counters rely on MEMS inertial sensors and sophisticated software to detect steps. These MEMS sensors have either 1-, 2- or 3-axis detection of acceleration. The use of MEMS inertial sensors permits more accurate detection of steps and fewer false positives. The software technology used to interpret the output of the inertial sensor and "make sense of accurate steps" varies widely. The problem is compounded by the fact that in modern day-to-day life, such step-counters are expected to count accurately on locations where users frequently carry their devices. In recent years more advanced approaches to measure steps have been made with the use of computer vision.Accuracy
The accuracy of step counters varies widely between devices. Typically, step counters are reasonably accurate at a walking pace on a flat surface if the device is placed in its optimal position.Although traditional step counters are affected dramatically when placed at different angles and locations, recent advances have made them more robust to those non-ideal placements. Still, most step counters falsely count steps when a user is driving a car or makes other habitual motions that the device encounters throughout the day. This error accumulates for users with moderate commutes to work. Accuracy of distance measurement also depends on the user entered step-length.
The best pedometers are accurate to within ± 5% error.
Integration in personal electronic devices
Apple products
Nike+iPod Sport Kit
and Nike, Inc. introduced the Nike+iPod Sport Kit, which uses a motion sensor that fits into a Nike shoe or in a pocket worn on the laces of other brands of shoes. The sensor communicates with an iPhone, iPod touch, iPod nano, or dedicated adapter to transmit workout information such as elapsed time, distance traveled, and calories burned.Apple iPhone 5s
The iPhone 5s was the first iPhone to contain an Apple Motion Coprocessor which was denoted the M7 chip paired with the first 64-bit ARM-based Apple processor, the Apple A7 SoC. The addition of the separate always on coprocessor allows the main CPU to snooze while it tracks the motion of the phone, through the use of an inertial measurement unit consisting of an accelerometer, MEMS gyroscope and digital compass. This means that it will know when the user is jogging or in the car, and can take that information and store it without needing to drain the battery by having the main CPU run. It can retrofit the data to apps downloaded at a later date, meaning any M7-enabled app that uses the new CoreMotion API will be able to give the information on recent training.Apple iPhone 6
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus contains the next generation of the Apple Motion Coprocessors with the M8 motion coprocessor, this chip was paired with the vastly improved Apple A8 SoC processor and gained the added sensor input of a Bosch Sensortech Barometer allowing the M8 to sense changes in elevation by the change in barometric pressure.Apple iPhone 6s
The iPhone 6s and 6s Plus improved the Apple Motion Coprocessors by integrating it into the die of the new Apple A9 SoC processor. This saves space allowing for the reduction of the logic board size as well as reduced power usage within the phone. This chip is also at the heart of the first-generation iPhone SE. A variant of the Apple A9, the Apple A9X also incorporates the M9 processor on-die and drives the Apple iPad Pro.Apple Watch
The Apple Watch extended step-counting capability to Apple's first wearable device using the accelerometer and gyroscope integrated in the Apple S1 SIP. Apple Watch works in parallel with a connected iPhone to improve accuracy of the user's step count.Fitbit
The Fitbit is an always-on electronic pedometer, that in addition to counting steps also displays distance traveled, altitude climbed, calories burned, current intensity, and time of day. Worn in an armband at night, it also purports to measure the length and quality of a user's sleep. Inbuilt is a daily target, of 10,000 steps and 10 flights of stairs. Connected by USB with a computer, the user's data is automatically uploaded and displayed via a web-based profile page, that keeps track of historical data, to which can be added food consumption data. Based on activity users are awarded badges for daily step and climbing targets, as well as 'lifetime' awards for same. In the US and UK users can also download an iOS or Android app for recording and display of data.Most Fitbit devices estimate distance traveled based on steps counted, the intensity of the steps and the user's profile data. Individuals can improve the accuracy of their stride length settings by measuring and calibrating their average stride length. Some higher-end Fitbit models include additional features such as heart rate monitoring and GPS tracking.