Paiwan language

Paiwan is a native language of southern Taiwan. It is spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people, and historically as a second language by most people in southern Taiwan. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.

Dialects

Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.

A1 – southern and central
*Kuɬaɬau _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" are also spoken.
*Kapaiwanan
*Tjuaqatsiɬay – southernmost dialect
A2 – central
*Ɬarəkrək
*Patjavaɬ
B1 – northernmost
*Tjukuvuɬ
*Kaviangan
B2 – northwestern
*Tjaɬakavus
*Makazayazaya
B3 – east-central
*Tjariḍik
B4 – eastern
*Tjavuaɬi
*Tjakuvukuvuɬ

This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:
Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.

Paridrayan group
*Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
*Tjailjaking
* Tineljepan
* Cavak
* Tjukuvulj
Timur group
* Timur
* Tavatavang
*Vuljulju
* Sagaran
Makazayazaya branch
*'ulaljuc
* Idra
*Masilidj
* Makazayazaya
*Paljulj
*Kazangiljan
* Masisi
*Kazazaljan
* 'apedang
* Kaviyangan
* Puljetji
* Tjuaqau
Eastern branch
* Paumeli
* Tjulitjulik
* Viljauljaulj
*Kaljataran
*Ka'aluan
*Tjua'au
* Sapulju
*Kingku
*Djumulj
* Tjukuvulj
Tjagaraus branch
*Payuan
*Padain
*Piuma
Raxekerek branch
* Raxekerek
* Kinaximan
* Tjevecekadan
Raxekerek branch
* Tjahiljik
* Tjacuqu
* Tjatjigelj
*Tjaqup
*Rahepaq
*Kaljapitj
*Qeceljing
*Pacavalj
*Kuvaxeng
*Utjaqas
*Ljupetj
Tjala'avus branch
*Tjalja'avus
*Calasiv
*Tjana'asia
*Pucunug
*Vungalid
*Pailjus

Phonology

Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants and 4 vowels. Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.
The four Paiwan vowels are. is written in the literature.
In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants. is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.
Younger speakers tend to pronounce as. Fricative is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere in Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill, though it still varies. Word-initial *k has become.

Grammar

Pronouns

The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell.

Gloss	Equational	Genitive	Non-Eq., Non-Gen.
	-aken, ti-aken	ku-, ni-aken	tjanu-aken
	-sun, ti-sun	su-, ni-sun	tjanu-sun
	ti-madju	ni-madju	tjai-madju
.	-itjen, ti-tjen	tja-, ni-tjen	tjanu-itjen
.	-amen, ti-amen	nia-, ni-amen	tjanu-amen
	-mun, ti-mun	nu-, ni-mun	tjanu-mun
	ti-a-madju	ni-a-madju	tjai-a-madju

Function words

Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.

a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *tjai, personal plural = tjaia

Other words include:

i – be at, in
nu – if when
na – already done/doing or have become
uri – definite future negative marker
uri – definite future marker
ɬa – emphasis, setting apart

Affixed adverbials include:

-tiaw
*nu-tiaw: tomorrow
*ka-tiaw: yesterday
-sawni
*nu-sawni: soon, in a little while
*ka-sawni: a little while ago
-ngida
*nu-ngida: when?
*ka-ngida: when?

Interjections include the following:

ui – yes
ini – no
neka – no, not
ai – oh!
ai ḍivá – alas!
uá – oh!
ai ḍaḍá – ouch!

Verbs

Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.

Agent/Actor
Object/Goal/Patient
Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin

The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.

Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.

-anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
-angata: "definitely"
-anga: "still, yet, continuing to"

Affixes

The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell.
;Prefixes

ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
ka- -an: principal, main
kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of
ka-si-: come from
ken-: eat, drink, consume
ki-: get, obtain
ku-: my; I
ɬa-: belonging to a given category
ɬe-: to go in the direction of
ɬia-: come to be in/at
li-: have quality of
ma-: be affected by, be in condition of
mare-: having reciprocal relationship
mare-ka-: in some general category
maɬe-: number of persons
me-: agent marker usually involving change of status
mere-: be gigantic, super-
mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive
mi- -an: pretend, claim
mu-: agent marker
ka-na- -anga: every
pa-: to cause to be/occur
pe-: emerge, come into view
pi-: put in/on; do something to
pu-: have or produce; acquire
pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
ma-pu-: do nothing except...
ra-: having to do with
r-m-a-: do at/during
r-m-a- -an: do at/in
sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
san-: construct, work on/in
ki-sane-: become/act as; one who acts as
ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
se-: people of ; have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of
si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
ma-si-: carry, transport
su-: your; you ; leave, remove, desist from
ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
ta-: past marker
tu-: similar to, like
ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
tja-: our, we ; more, to a greater extent, further
ki-tja-: take along for use
tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
tjara-: be definitely
tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
tjari-: furthest, utmost
tja-u-: to have just done
tje-: choose to do at/from
ka-tje- -an: containing
tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names
tji-a-: be/remain at
tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
m-uri-: search for

;Infixes

-aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
-ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
-m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
-in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words

;Suffixes

-an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
-en: object/goal of action; object focus
-aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
-u: agent focus ; most peremptory imperative
-i: object focus ; polite imperative
-ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time

The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory.
;Nouns

-aḷ-, -alʸ- 'tiny things'
-in- 'things made from plant roots'
-an 'place'
mar- 'a pair of'
pu- 'rich'
ḳay- 'vegetation'
sə- 'inhabitants'
cua- 'name of a tribe'

;Verbs

-aŋa 'already done'
ka- 'to complete'
kə- 'to do something oneself'
ki- 'to do something to oneself'
kisu- 'to get rid of'
kicu- 'to do something separately'
maCa- 'to do something reciprocally'
mə- 'to experience, to be something'
pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
pu- 'to produce, to get something'
sa- 'to be willing to do something'
calʸu- 'to arrive at'

;Adjectives

ma- 'being'
na- 'with the quality of'
səcalʸi- 'very'
ca- 'more than'