Doric Greek


Doric or Dorian, also known as West Greek, was a group of Ancient Greek dialects; its varieties are divided into the Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, including northern Greece, most of the Peloponnese, the Southern Aegean, as well as the colonies of some of those regions in Cyrene, Magna Graecia, the Black Sea, the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea. It was also spoken in the Greek sanctuaries of Dodona, Delphi, and Olympia, as well as at the four Panhellenic festivals; the Isthmian, Nemean, Pythian, and Olympic Games.
By Hellenistic times, under the Achaean League, an Achaean Doric koine appeared, exhibiting many peculiarities common to all Doric dialects, which delayed the spread of the Attic-based Koine Greek to the Peloponnese until the 2nd century BC. The only living descendant of Doric is the Tsakonian language which is still spoken in Greece today; though critically endangered, with only a few hundred – mostly elderly – fluent speakers left.
It is widely accepted that Doric originated in the mountains of Epirus in northwestern Greece, the original seat of the Dorians. It then expanded to all other regions and the colonisations that followed. The presence of a Doric state in central Greece, north of the Gulf of Corinth, led to the theory that Doric had originated in northwest Greece or maybe beyond in the Balkans. The dialect's distribution towards the north extends to the Megarian colony of Byzantium and the Corinthian colonies of Potidaea, Epidamnos, Apollonia and Ambracia; there, it further added words to what would become the Albanian language, probably via traders from a now-extinct "Adriatic Illyrian" intermediary. In the north, local epigraphical evidence includes the decrees of the Epirote League, the Pella curse tablet, three additional lesser known Macedonian dialect|Macedonian] inscriptions, numerous inscriptions from a number of Greek colonies. Furthermore, there is an abundance of place names used to examine features of the northern Doric dialects. Southern dialects, in addition to numerous inscriptions, coins, and names, have also provided much more literary evidence through authors such as Alcman, Pindar, and Archimedes of Syracuse, among others, all of whom wrote in Doric. There are also ancient dictionaries that have survived; notably the one by Hesychius of Alexandria, whose work preserved many dialectal words from throughout the Greek-speaking world.

Varieties

Doric proper

Where the Doric dialect group fits in the overall classification of ancient Greek dialects depends to some extent on the classification. Several views are stated under Greek dialects. The prevalent theme of most views listed there is that Doric is a subgroup of West Greek. Some use the terms Northern Greek or Northwest Greek instead. The geographic distinction is only verbal and ostensibly is misnamed: all of Doric was spoken south of "Southern Greek" or "Southeastern Greek."
Be that as it may, "Northern Greek" is based on a presumption that Dorians came from the north and on the fact that Doric is closely related to Northwest Greek. When the distinction began is not known. All the "northerners" might have spoken one dialect at the time of the Dorian invasion; certainly, Doric could only have further differentiated into its classical dialects when the Dorians were in place in the south. Thus West Greek is the most accurate name for the classical dialects.
Tsakonian, a descendant of Laconian Doric, is still spoken on the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in the modern prefectures of Arcadia and Laconia. Today it is a source of considerable interest to linguists, and an endangered dialect.

Laconian

Laconian was spoken by the population of Laconia in the southern Peloponnese and also by its colonies, Taras and Herakleia in Magna Graecia. Sparta was the seat of ancient Laconia.
Laconian is attested in inscriptions on pottery and stone from the seventh century BC. A dedication to Helen dates from the second quarter of the seventh century. Taras was founded in 706 and its founders must already have spoken Laconic.
Many documents from the state of Sparta survive, whose citizens called themselves Lacedaemonians after the name of the valley in which they lived. Homer calls it "hollow Lacedaemon", though he refers to a pre-Dorian period. The seventh century Spartan poet Alcman used a dialect that some consider to be predominantly Laconian. Philoxenus of Alexandria wrote a treatise On the Laconian dialect.

Argolic

Argolic was spoken in the thickly settled northeast Peloponnese at, for example, Argos, Mycenae, Hermione, Troezen, Epidaurus, and as close to Athens as the island of Aegina. As Mycenaean Greek had been spoken in this dialect region in the Bronze Age, it is clear that the Dorians overran it but were unable to take Attica. The Dorians went on from Argos to Crete and Rhodes.
Ample inscriptional material of a legal, political and religious content exists from at least the sixth century BC.

Corinthian

Corinthian was spoken first in the isthmus region between the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece; that is, the Isthmus of Corinth. The cities and states of the Corinthian dialect region were Corinth, Sicyon, Archaies Kleones, Phlius, the colonies of Corinth in western Greece: Corcyra, Leucas, Anactorium, Ambracia and others, the colonies in and around Italy: Syracuse, Sicily and Ancona, and the colonies of Corcyra: Dyrrachium, and Apollonia. The earliest inscriptions at Corinth date from the early sixth century BC. They use a Corinthian epichoric alphabet.
Corinth contradicts the prejudice that Dorians were rustic militarists, as some consider the speakers of Laconian to be. Positioned on an international trade route, Corinth played a leading part in the re-civilizing of Greece after the centuries of disorder and isolation following the collapse of Mycenaean Greece.

Northwest Doric

The Northwest Doric or Northwest Greek group is closely related to Doric proper. Whether it is to be considered a part of the southern Doric Group or the latter a part of it or the two considered subgroups of West Greek, the dialects and their grouping remain the same. West Thessalian and Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Doric influence.
While Northwest Doric is generally seen as a dialectal group, dissenting views exist, such as that of Méndez-Dosuna, who argues that Northwest Doric is not a proper dialectal group but rather merely a case of areal dialectal convergence. Throughout the Northwest Doric area, most internal differences did not hinder mutual understanding, though Filos, citing Bubenik, notes that there were certain cases where a bit of accommodation may have been necessary.
The earliest epigraphic texts for Northwest Doric date to the 6th–5th century BC. These are thought to provide evidence for Northwest Doric features, especially the phonology and morphophonology, but most of the features thus attributed to Northwest Doric are not exclusive to it. The Northwest Doric dialects differ from the main Doric Group dialects in the below features:
  1. Dative plural of the third declension in -οις : Ἀκαρνάνοις ἱππέοις Akarnanois hippeois for Ἀκαρνᾶσιν ἱππεῦσιν Akarnasin hippeusin.
  2. ἐν + accusative : en Naupakton.
  3. -στ for -σθ : γενέσται genestai for genesthai, μίστωμα mistôma for misthôma.
  4. ar for er: amara /Dor. amera/Att. hêmera, Elean wargon for Doric wergon and Attic ergon
  5. Dative singular in -oi instead of -ôi: τοῖ Ἀσκλαπιοῖ, Doric τῷ Ἀσκλαπιῷ, Attic Ἀσκληπιῷ
  6. Middle participle in -eimenos instead of -oumenos
Four or five dialects of Northwestern Doric are recognised.

Phocian

This dialect was spoken in Phocis and in its main settlement of Delphi, where a local form known as the Delphian dialect was spoken. Plutarch says that Delphians pronounce b in the place of p.

Locrian

is attested in two locations:
The dialect of Elis is considered, after Aeolic Greek, one of the most difficult for the modern reader of epigraphic texts.

Aetolian

The dialect of ancient Aetolia.

Acarnanian

The dialect of ancient Acarnania.

Epirote

Spoken at the Dodona oracle, firstly under control of the Thesprotians; later organized in the Epirote League under the control of Molossians.

Ancient Macedonian

Most scholars maintain that ancient Macedonian was a Greek dialect, probably of the Northwestern Doric group in particular. Olivier Masson, in his article for The Oxford Classical Dictionary, talks of "two schools of thought": one rejecting "the Greek affiliation of Macedonian" and preferring "to treat it as an Indo-European language of the Balkans" of contested affiliation ; the other favouring "a purely Greek nature of Macedonian as a northern Greek dialect" with numerous adherents from the 19th century and on.
Masson himself argues with the largely Greek character of the Macedonian onomastics and sees Macedonian as "a Greek dialect, characterised by its marginal position and by local pronunciations" and probably most closely related to the dialects of the Greek North-West. Brian D. Joseph acknowledges the closeness of Macedonian to Greek, but retains that "he slender evidence is open to different interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really possible". Johannes Engels has pointed to the Pella curse tablet, written in Doric Greek: "This has been judged to be the most important ancient testimony to substantiate that Macedonian was a north-western Greek and mainly a Doric dialect". Georgios Giannakis supports the view that recent scholarship has established the position of ancient Macedonian within the dialect map of North-West Greek. There has been some recent scholarly agreement, often expressed as cautious or tentative, that ancient Macedonian belongs to the Northwest Greek group.
Miltiades Hatzopoulos has suggested that the Ancient Macedonian dialect of the 4th century BC, as attested in the Pella curse tablet, was a sort of Macedonian 'koine' resulting from the encounter of the idiom of the 'Aeolic'-speaking populations around Mount Olympus and the Pierian Mountains with the Northwest Greek-speaking Argead Macedonians hailing from Argos Orestikon, who founded the kingdom of Lower Macedonia. However, according to Hatzopoulos, B. Helly expanded and improved his own earlier suggestion and presented the hypothesis of a 'Achaean' substratum extending as far north as the head of the Thermaic Gulf, which had a continuous relation, in prehistoric times both in Thessaly and Macedonia, with the Northwest Greek-speaking populations living on the other side of the Pindus mountain range, and contacts became cohabitation when the Argead Macedonians completed their wandering from Orestis to Lower Macedonia in the 7th c. BC. According to this hypothesis, Hatzopoulos concludes that the Ancient Macedonian Greek dialect of the historical period, which is attested in inscriptions such as the Pella curse tablet, is a sort of koine resulting from the interaction and the influences of various elements, the most important of which are the North-Achaean substratum, the Northwest Greek dialect of the Argead Macedonians, and the Thracian and Phrygian adstrata. Angelos Boufalis suggests that "several features can be established as local and most of them seem indeed to be shared with the NW Doric and/or the Thessalian dialect"; but also that "rather than a monolithic dialect throughout, different local or regional idioms may have had been spoken in this extensive geographical area".
In the region of Upper Macedonia, the tribes of Elimiotes, Orestes, Lyncestae, and Pelagones, were all Epirotic tribes and used the Northwest Greek dialect.

Achaean Doric

Achaean Doric most probably belonged to the Northwest Doric group. It was spoken in Achaea in the northwestern Peloponnese, on the islands of Cephalonia and Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea, and in the Achaean colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy. This strict Doric dialect was later subject to the influence of mild Doric spoken in Corinthia. It survived until 350 BC.

Achaean Doric koine

By Hellenistic times, under the Achaean League, an Achaean Doric koine appeared, exhibiting many peculiarities common to all Doric dialects, which delayed the spread of the Attic-based Koine Greek to the Peloponnese until the 2nd century BC.

Northwest Doric koine

The Northwest Doric koine refers to a supraregional North-West common variety that emerged in the third and second centuries BC, and was used in the official texts of the Aetolian League. Such texts have been found in W. Locris, Phocis, and Phtiotis, among other sites. It contained a mix of native Northwest Doric dialectal elements and Attic forms. It was apparently based on the most general features of Northwest Doric, eschewing less common local traits.
Its rise was driven by both linguistic and non-linguistic factors, with non-linguistic motivating factors including the spread of the rival Attic-Ionic koine after it was recruited by the Macedonian state for administration, and the political unification of a vast territories by the Aetolian League and the state of Epirus. The Northwest Doric koine was thus both a linguistic and a political rival of the Attic-Ionic koine.

Phonology

Vowels

Long a

long *ā is retained as ā, in contrast to Attic developing a long open ē in at least some positions.
  • Doric gā mātēr ~ Attic gē mētēr 'earth mother'

    Compensatory lengthening of e and o

In certain Doric dialects, *e and *o lengthen by compensatory lengthening or contraction to eta or omega, in contrast to Attic ei and ou.
  • Severe Doric -ō ~ Attic -ou
  • -ōs ~ -ous
  • -ēn ~ ''-ein''

    Contraction of a and e

Contraction: Proto-Greek *ae > Doric ē ~ Attic ā.

Synizesis

Proto-Greek *eo, *ea > some Doric dialects' io, ia.

Proto-Greek *a

Proto-Greek short *a > Doric short a ~ Attic e in certain words.
  • Doric hiaros, Artamis ~ Attic hieros 'holy', Artemis

    Consonants

Proto-Greek *-ti

Proto-Greek *-ti is retained.
  • Doric phāti ~ Attic phēsi 'he says'
  • legonti ~ legousi 'they say'
  • wīkati ~ eikosi 'twenty'
  • triākatioi ~ triākosioi 'three hundred'

    Proto-Greek *ts

Proto-Greek *ts > -ss- between vowels.
  • Proto-Greek *métsos > Doric messos ~ Attic mesos 'middle'

    Digamma

Initial *w is preserved in earlier Doric.
  • Doric woikos ~ Attic oikos 'house'
Literary texts in Doric and inscriptions from the Hellenistic age have no digamma.

Accentuation

For information on the peculiarities of Doric accentuation, see.

Morphology

Numeral tetores ~ Attic tettares, Ionic tesseres "four".
Ordinal prātos ~ Attic–Ionic prōtos "first".
Demonstrative pronoun tēnos "this" ~ Attic–Ionic keinos
t for h in article and demonstrative pronoun.
  • Doric toi, tai; toutoi, tautai
  • ~ Attic-Ionic hoi, hai; houtoi, hautai.
Third person plural, athematic or root aorist -n ~ Attic -san.
  • Doric edon ~ Attic–Ionic edosan
First person plural active -mes ~ Attic–Ionic -men.
Future -se-ō ~ Attic -s-ō.
  • prāxētai ~ Attic–Ionic prāxetai
Modal particle ka ~ Attic–Ionic an.
  • Doric ai ka, ai de ka, ai tis ka ~ ean, ean de, ean tis
Temporal adverbs in -ka ~ Attic–Ionic -te.
  • hoka, toka
Locative adverbs in -ei ~ Attic/Koine -ou.
  • teide, pei.

    Future tense

The aorist and future of verbs in -izō, -azō has x.
  • Doric agōnixato ~ Attic agōnisato "he contended"
Similarly k before suffixes beginning with t.

Glossary

Common

  • αἰγάδες aigades "goats"
  • αἶγες aiges "waves"
  • ἁλία halia "assembly"
  • βρύκαιναι brykainai "priestesses"
  • βρυκετός bryketos "chewing, grinding, gnashing with the teeth"
  • δαμιοργοί damiorgoi "high officials". Cf. Attic δημιουργός dēmiourgos "public worker for the people, craftsman, creator"; Hesychius δαμιουργοί· αἱ πόρναι "prostitutes". Elean: Ζαμιουργοί Zamiourgoi.
  • Ἐλωός Elōos – epithet of Hephaestus
  • κάρρων Karrōn "stronger"
  • κορύγης korygēs "herald, messenger"
  • λαιός laios "left". Cretan: λαία laia; Attic ἀσπίς aspis "shield"; Hesychius: λαῖφα laipha, λαίβα laiba – because the shield was held with the left hand. Cf. Latin laevus.
  • λαία laia "prey"
  • λέω leiō "will"
  • οἴνωτρος oinōtros "vine pole"
  • μογίοντι mogionti "they are on fire, have fever"
  • μυρμηδόνες Myrmēdones "ants"
  • ὄπτιλλος optillos or optilos "eye"
  • πάομαι paomai "acquire"
  • ῥαπιδοποιός rhapidopoios "poet, broiderer, pattern-weaver, boot-maker"
  • σκανά skana
  • τανθαλύζειν tanthalyzein "to tremble"
  • τύνη tunē or tounē "you" ; dative: τέειν teein
  • χανάκτιον chanaktion "foolish"; cf. χάν chan "goose"

    Doric proper

Argolic

  • Βαλλακράδες Ballakrádes – title of Argive athletes on a feast-day
  • Δαυλὶς Daulìs – mimic festival at Argos
  • δροόν droón – strong
  • κέστερ késter – youngman
  • κυλλάραβις kyllárabis – discus and gymnasium at Argos
  • σεμαλία semalía – ragged, tattered garments
  • ὤβεα ôbea – eggs

    Cretan

  • ἀγέλα agela – "group of boys in the Cretan agōgē"
  • ἀδνός adnos – "holy, pure"
  • ἀϝτὸς awtos – Hsch. aus αὐς - αὐτός. Κρῆτες καὶ Λάκωνες
  • ἄκαρα akara – "legs"
  • ἁμάκις hamakis – "once"
  • ἄργετος argetos – juniper, cedar
  • αὐκά auka – "power"
  • ἀφραττίας aphrattias – "strong"
  • βαλικιῶται balikiôtai – Koine synepheboi
  • βριτύ britu – "sweet"
  • δαμιόω damioô – Cretan and Boeotian for Attic ζημιόω zêmioô "to damage, punish, harm"
  • δαμπόν dampon – first milk curdled by heating over embers
  • δῶλα dôla – "ears"
  • Ϝέλχανος Welchanos – for Cretan Zeus and Welchanios, Belchanos, Gelchanos
  • ϝεργάδδομαι wergaddomai – "I work"
  • ϝῆμα wêma – "garment"
  • ἰβῆν ibên – "wine"
  • ἴττον itton – "one"
  • καρανώ karanô – "goat"
  • ϙόσμος kosmos – in Crete, used of the body of archontes; Attic κόσμος kosmos = "order, ornament, honour, world"; kormos = "trunk of a tree"
  • κύφερον, κυφή kypheron, kuphê – "head"
  • λάκος lakos – "rag, tattered garment"
  • μαλκενίς malkenis –
  • ὄθρυν othrun – "mountain"
  • ῥυστόν rhyston – "spear"
  • σεῖφα seipha – "darkness"
  • σπεῦσδος speusdos – "title of Cretan officer"
  • τάγανα tagana – "these things"
  • τίρος tiros – "summer"
  • τρέ tre – "you", accusative

    Laconian

  • ἀβήρ storeroom οἴκημα στοὰς ἔχον, ταμεῖον Λάκωνες
  • ἀϝώρ awôr dawn
  • ἄδδα adda need, deficiency Aristophanes of Byzantium
  • ἀδδαυόν dry or addanon
  • αἴκουδα aikouda αἰσχύνη. Λάκωνες
  • αἵματία blood-broth, Spartan Melas Zomos Black soup)
  • ἀΐτας aïtas "beloved boy "
  • ἀκκόρ tube, bag
  • ἀκχαλίβαρ bed
  • ἀμβροτίξας having begun, past participle
  • ἀμπέσσαι to dress
  • ἀπαβοίδωρ apaboidôr out of tune / emmelôs, aboidôr in tune
  • Ἀπέλλα apella "assembly in Sparta"
  • ἀρβυλίς arbylis
  • Ἄρταμις
  • ἄττασι wake up, get up
  • βάβαλον imperative of cry aloud, shout
  • βάγαρον
  • βαφά broth
  • ϝείκατι weikati twenty
  • βέλα sun and dawn Laconian
  • βερνώμεθα Attic klêrôsômetha we will cast or obtain by lot
  • βέσκερος bread
  • βήλημα hindrance, river dam
  • βηρίχαλκον fennel
  • βίβασις Spartan dance for boys and girls
  • βίδυοι ''bideoi, bidiaioi also "officers in charge of the ephebes at Sparta"
  • βίὡρ '' almost, maybe wihôr
  • βλαγίς spot
  • βοῦα "group of boys in the Spartan agōgē"
  • βοαγός boagos "leader of a boua at Sparta"
  • βυλλίχης Laconian dancer
  • βώνημα speech
  • γαβεργόρ labourer
  • γαιάδας citizens, people
  • γονάρ gonar mother Laconian
  • δαβελός torch
  • δίζα goat and Hera aigophagos Goat-eater in Sparta
  • εἴρην eirēn "Spartan youth who has completed his 12th year"
  • εἰσπνήλας one who inspires love, a lover
  • ἐξωβάδια
  • ἔφοροι ephoroi "high officials at Sparta". Cf. Attic ἔφορος ephoros "overseer, guardian"
  • Θοράτης Apollon containing the semen, god of growth and increase
  • θρῶναξ drone
  • κάφα washing, bathing-tub
  • κελοῖα "contest for boys and youths at Sparta"
  • κίρα fox .
  • μεσόδμα woman and
  • μυρταλίς Butcher's broom
  • πάσορ pasor passion
  • πόρ leg, foot
  • πούρδαιν restaurant
  • σαλαβάρ cook
  • σίκα 'pig' and female pig.
  • σιρία safeness
  • ψιθωμίας psithômias ill, sick Λάκωνες τὸν ἀσθενῆ
  • ψιλάκερ first dancer
  • ὠϝά, ὠβά ôba "village; one of five quarters of the city of Sparta"

    Magna Graecia's Doric

  • ἀστύξενοι astyxenoi Metics, Tarentine
  • βάννας king basileus, wanax, anax
  • βειλαρμοσταὶ cavalry officers Tarentine
  • δόστορε dostore 'you make' Tarentine
  • Θαύλια Thaulia "festival of Tarentum", θαυλακίζειν thaulakizein 'to demand sth with uproar' Tarentine, θαυλίζειν thaulizein "to celebrate like Dorians", Θαῦλος Thaulos "Macedonian Ares", Thessalian Ζεὺς Θαύλιος Zeus Thaulios, Athenian Ζεὺς Θαύλων Zeus Thaulon, Athenian family Θαυλωνίδαι Thaulonidai
  • ῥάγανον easy Thuriian
  • σκύτας 'back-side of neck'
  • τήνης till Tarentine
  • τρυφώματα whatever are fed or nursed, children, cattle
  • ὑετίς huetis jug, amphora Tarentine

    North-West

Aetolian-Acarnanian

  • ἀγρίδιον agridion 'village' Aetolian
  • ἀερία aeria fog Aetolian
  • κίββα wallet, bag Aetolian
  • πλήτομον Acarnanian old, ancient

    Delphic-Locrian

  • δείλομαι will, want Locrian, Delphian
  • ϝαργάνα female worker epithet for Athena
  • Ϝεσπάριοι Λοϙροὶ Wesparioi Lokroi Epizephyrian Locrians
  • ὀπλίαι places where the Locrians counted their cattle

    Elean

  • ἀϝλανέο̄ς without fraud, honestly IvO7
  • ἀμίλλυξ scythe in accus. ἀμίλλυκα
  • ἀττάμιος unpunished from an earliest addamios
  • βάβακοι cicadas Elean
  • βαίδειος ready
  • βενέοι beneoi Elean
  • βορσός pole, stake
  • βρα brothers, brotherhood
  • βρατάνα ladle
  • δειρῆται small birds
  • ϝράτρα law, contract
  • σερός yesterday
  • στερχανά sterchana funeral feast
  • φίλαξ philax young oak
  • φόρβυτα gums

    Epirote

  • ἀγχωρίξαντας anchôrixantas having transferred, postponed Chaonian not to be confused with Doric Attic ana-chôreô go back, withdraw.
  • ἀκαθαρτία akathartia impurity
  • ἀποτράχω apotrachô run away
  • ἄσπαλοι fishes Athamanian
  • Ἄσπετος Aspetos divine epithet of Achilles in Epirus
  • γνώσκω gnôskô know
  • διαιτός diaitos Lamelles Oraculaires 16
  • ἐσκιχρέμεν lend out πὲρ τοῖ argyria
  • ϝεῖδυς weidus knowing Cabanes, L'Épire 577,50
  • κάστον kaston wood Athamanian ; Sanskrit kāṣṭham
  • λῃτῆρες lêïtêres Athamanian priests with garlands Hes.text ἱεροὶ στεφανοφόροι. Ἀθαμᾶνες
  • Νάϊος Naios or Naos epithet of Dodonaean Zeus
  • παγάομαι pagaomai 'wash in the spring'
  • παμπασία pampasia
  • Πελιγᾶνες Peliganes or Peligones
  • πρᾶμι prami do optative Syncope
  • τίνε tine to whom
  • τριθυτικόν trithutikon'' triple sacrifice tri + thuo

    Achaean Doric

  • καιρότερον kairoteron "earlier"
  • κεφαλίδας kephalidas "sideburns"
  • σιαλίς sialis slime, mud

    Inline

General

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