Northern Crusades


The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were military campaigns undertaken by several Germanic Catholic Christian military orders and kingdoms in an effort to Christianize the pagan Baltic, Finnic, and West Slavic peoples around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. In some cases, such as with the Wendish Crusade, the campaign was partly motivated to control the rich resources found in the lands.
The most notable of these campaigns were the Livonian and Prussian Crusades. Some of these wars were explicitly regarded, during the Middle Ages, as crusades; for example, the military venture against the Estonians—and the "other pagans in those parts"—authorized by Pope Alexander III's 1171 crusade bull, Non parum animus noster. However, others—such as the 12th-century First Swedish Crusade and several subsequent incursions, undertaken by Scandinavian Christians against the then-pagan Finns—were dubbed "crusades" only in the 19th century, by romantic nationalist historians.

Background

At the outset of the northern crusades, Christian monarchs across northern Europe commissioned forays into territories that comprise modern-day Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. The indigenous populations of Pagans suffered forced baptisms and the ravages of military occupation. Spearheading, but by no means monopolizing these incursions, the ascendant Teutonic Order profited immensely from the crusades, as did German merchants who fanned out along trading routes traversing the Baltic frontier.
The official starting point for the Northern Crusades was Pope Celestine III's call in 1195, but the Catholic kingdoms of Scandinavia, Poland, and the Holy Roman Empire had begun moving to subjugate their pagan neighbors even earlier. The non-Christian people who were objects of the campaigns at various dates included:
Armed conflict between the Finnic peoples, Balts, and Slavs who lived by the Baltic shores, and their Saxon and Danish neighbors to the north and south, had been common for several centuries before the crusade. The previous battles had largely been caused by attempts to destroy castles and sea trade routes to gain an economic advantage in the region, and the crusade basically continued this pattern of conflict, albeit now inspired and prescribed by the Pope and undertaken by Papal knights and armed monks.

Wendish Crusade

The campaigns started with the 1147 Wendish Crusade against the Polabian Slavs of what is now northern and eastern Germany. The crusade occurred parallel to the Second Crusade to the Holy Land, and continued irregularly until the 16th century.

Swedish Crusades

The Swedish crusades were campaigns by Sweden against Finns, Tavastians, and Karelians during the period from 1150 to 1293. The wars with the Eastern Orthodox Novgorod Republic also had a religious aspect.

Danish Crusades

are known to have made at least three crusades to Finland. The first mention of these crusades is from 1187, when crusader Esbern Snare mentioned—in his Christmas-feast speech—a major victory over the Finns. The next known crusades were made in 1191 and in 1202; the latter was led by the Bishop of Lund, Anders Sunesen, with his brother.
Journalist Matts Dumell explains that there was a rivalry between the churches in Denmark and Sweden. This led them to compete, which amongst other things took the form of conquests, gaining of adherents to Christianity and propaganda wins against the other. The possibility that Finland was part of Sweden in the mid-1100's to early 1200's is virtually impossible due to this and Sweden saw civil strife from within in this period as well, which took the form of several battles, assassinations between several strongmen from House of Sverker and House of Erik. Only in 1216, would the Pope change his preference that the Finnish areas should not be part of the Danish king, but now be under the Swedish king's 'protection'. However, only in 1165 did the Roman Catholic Church start to "expect" bigger territorial gains and adherents from the Danes in missionary work Finland and Estonia, this despite Finland had seen some conversion to Christianity before 1165 already. There is scholarly debate over how successful the Danes were in the end and if they gained any permanent foothold or territory in Finland before the Swedes begun their efforts. Dumell debates if places like an fort in Saxby near Porvoo could be a product of this Danish presence, possibly built during their crusade in 1191.
Dumell lists several possible crusades by Denmark to Finland:
  • King Knut Waldemarsson 1191 led an 'victorious' crusade to Finland. Dumell says this expedition is well attested, mentioned in multiply ancient sources. Waldemarsson would in 1194 and 1196-1197 perform crusades against Estonia as well.
  • In 1202, an Bishop Anders and his brothers Ebbe and Lars Sunesen is said to have conducted a crusade into Finland. The attestation is very sparse and veracity unsure. Dumell debates if this is mixed up with another expedition in 1206 to Ösel instead or real event.
  • Possibly one Danish crusade against Finland in 1209. However, this is very poorly attested and hard to confirm.

    Livonian Crusade

By the 12th century, the peoples inhabiting the lands now known as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a pagan wedge between increasingly powerful rival Christian states – the Orthodox Church to their east and the Catholic Church to their west. The difference in creeds was one of the reasons they were able to resist being forcibly converted to a different religion. During a period of more than 150 years leading up to the arrival of German crusaders in the region, Estonia was attacked thirteen times by Russian principalities, and by Denmark and Sweden as well. Estonians for their part made raids upon Denmark and Sweden. There were peaceful attempts by some Catholics to convert the Estonians, starting with missions dispatched by Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, in 1045–1072. However, these peaceful efforts seem to have had limited success.

Campaign against the Livonians (1198–1212)

Moving in the wake of German merchants who were now following the old trading routes of the Vikings, a canon named Meinhard landed at the mouth of the Daugava river in present-day Latvia in 1180 and was made bishop in 1186. Pope Celestine III proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic pagans in 1195, which was reiterated by Pope Innocent III, and a crusading expedition led by Meinhard's successor, Bishop Berthold of Hanover, landed in Livonia in 1198. Although the crusaders won their first battle, Bishop Berthold was mortally wounded and the crusaders were repelled.
In 1199, Albert of Buxhoeveden was appointed by the Archbishop Hartwig II of Bremen to Christianise the Baltic countries. By the time Albert died 30 years later, the conquest and formal Christianisation of present-day Estonia and northern Latvia was complete. Albert began his task by touring the Empire, preaching a Crusade against the Baltic countries, and was assisted in this by a papal bull which declared that fighting against the Baltic heathens was of the same rank as participating in a crusade to the Holy Land. Although he landed in the mouth of the Daugava in 1200 with only 23 ships and 500 soldiers, the bishop's efforts ensured that a constant flow of recruits followed. The first crusaders usually arrived to fight during the spring and returned to their homes in the autumn. To ensure a permanent military presence, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were founded in 1202. The founding by Bishop Albert of the market at Riga in 1201 attracted citizens from the Empire and economic prosperity ensued. At Albert's request, Pope Innocent III dedicated the Baltic countries to the Virgin Mary to popularize recruitment to his army and the name "Mary's Land" has survived up to modern times. This is noticeable in one of the names given to Livonia at the time, Terra Mariana.
In 1206, the crusaders subdued the Livonian stronghold in Turaida on the right bank of Gauja River, the ancient trading route to the Northwestern Rus. In order to gain control over the left bank of Gauja, the stone castle was built in Sigulda before 1210. By 1211, the Livonian province of Metsepole and the mixed Livonian–Latgallian inhabited county of Idumea was converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The last battle against the Livonians was the siege of Satezele hillfort near to Sigulda in 1212. The Livonians, who had been paying tribute to the East Slavic Principality of Polotsk, had at first considered the Germans useful allies. The first prominent Livonian to be christened was their leader Caupo of Turaida. As the German grip tightened, the Livonians rebelled against the crusaders and the christened chief but were put down. Caupo of Turaida remained an ally of the crusaders until his death in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in 1217.
The German crusaders enlisted newly baptised Livonian warriors to participate in their campaigns against Latgallians and Selonians, Estonians, and against Semigallians, Samogitians, and Curonians.

Campaign against the Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1224)

After the subjugation of the Livonians, the crusaders turned their attention to the Latgallian principalities to the east, along the Gauja and Daugava rivers. The military alliance in 1208 and later conversion from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism of the Principality of Tālava was the only peaceful subjugation of the Baltic tribes during the Nordic crusades. The ruler of Tālava, Tālivaldis, became the most loyal ally of German crusaders against the Estonians, and he died a Catholic martyr in 1215. The war against the Latgallian and Selonian countries along the Daugava waterway started in 1208 with the occupation of the Orthodox Principality of Koknese and the Selonian Sēlpils hillfort. The campaign continued in 1209 with an attack on the Orthodox Principality of Jersika, accused by crusaders of being in alliance with Lithuanian pagans. After the defeat, the king of Jersika, Visvaldis, became the vassal of the Bishop of Livonia and received part of his country as a fiefdom. The Selonian stronghold of Sēlpils was briefly the seat of a Selonian diocese, and then came under the rule of the Livonian Order. Only in 1224, with the division of Tālava and Adzele counties between the Bishop of Riga and the Order of the Swordbearers, did Latgallian countries finally become the possession of German conquerors. The territory of the former Principality of Jersika was divided between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order in 1239.