Hideyo Noguchi
Hideyo Noguchi, also known as Seisaku Noguchi, was a Japanese bacteriologist at the Rockefeller Institute during its foundation under Simon Flexner and known for his work on syphilis and contributing to the long term understanding of neurosyphilis.
During the emergence of the field of serology, he began as a research assistant to American physician Silas Weir Mitchell in his studies on snake venom at the University of Pennsylvania in 1901. Mitchell and Noguchi presented the results before National Academy of Science.
Noguchi was an early advocate of the widespread use of antivenoms before their mass production in the United States. In 1903, Noguchi went to the Statens Serum Institute in Denmark and produced one of the first antiserums to treat the North American rattlesnake bite alongside Thorvald Madsen.
In 1909, he wrote his comprehensive monograph, Snake Venoms: An Investigation of Venomous Snakes with Special Reference to the Phenomena of Their Venoms, which contained several drawings and photographs of specimens.
Beginning his career at the Rockefeller Institute during its foundation, Noguchi was the first person in the United States to confirm the causative agent of syphilis, Treponema pallidum, after it was first identified by Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann in 1905. His most notable achievement was isolating Treponema pallidum in the brain tissues of patients with general paresis and tabes dorsals, a late stage consequence of tertiary syphilis. His discovery established the conclusive link between the physical and mental manifestation of syphilis. American educator and psychiatrist John Clare Whitehorn considered it an outstanding psychiatric achievement.
Later in his career, Noguchi developed the first serum to give partial immunity to Rocky mountain spotted fever, a notoriously lethal disease before treatment was discovered. He also suggested the name for the genus Leptospira in 1917.
However, he became increasingly erratic and inaccurate, which might have been exacerbated from contracting syphilis, progressing to neurosyphilis, discovered during his autopsy by William Alexander Young combined with his poor education from childhood. He misidentified yellow fever as being caused by the bacteria, Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae, and received scrutiny when it was later understood to be a virus with the invention of a electron microscope. Prior to this scrutiny, Noguchi died of the disease in Accra, Gold Coast during an expedition to Africa in search for its cause.
Posthumously, his work on yellow fever was overturned alongside his claims of discovering the causative agent of rabies, poliomyelitis, trachoma and his culture of syphilis could not be reproduced. His research with his colleague Evelyn Tilden after his death proved that Carrions disease and verruca peruana were the same species.
Noguchi was one of the first Japanese scientists to gain international acclaim outside of Japan for his scientific contributions. In addition, he was nominated several times for a Nobel prize in medicine between 1913 and 1927, often bringing more attention to neglected tropical diseases.
His name is attached to the spirochete, Leptospira noguchii. In 2004, Noguchi's face was featured on the 1000 yen note. The Hideyo Noguchi Africa prize is given in his honor.
Early life
Noguchi was born Seisaku Noguchi in the town of Inawashiro in Fukushima Prefecture in 1876 to an impoverished farming family. His mother Shika worked to maintain the family farm and restore the Noguchi name to the honor it once had, the family having been descended from samurai in the days of Noguchi's great grandfather.Childhood accident
Noguchi was two years old when he was left with his deaf grandmother who had poor eyesight alongside his four year old sister, Inu, while his mother worked in the rice fields. He fell into an irori and suffered burns and developed an infection on his left hand.Since there were no doctor in Inawashiro, his left hand was unable to receive medical attention and remained useless as the upper joints of the fingers were gone, and the remaining joints had adhered to each other to form a solid clump. His thumb was drawn down to his wrist and had become attached to it. While Seisaku could no longer become a successful farmer. Shika promised to give her son an education.
Early education
In 1883, Noguchi entered Mitsuwa elementary school. His elementary school teacher Kobayashi saw his talent and due to generous contributions from his teacher, Noguchi received surgery for his left hand fifteen years after the accident. Dr. Kanae Watanabe was the surgeon that operated on Noguchi's hand at his clinic in Aizuwakamatsu.Noguchi recovered some functionality of his left hand. Afterwards, Noguchi decided to become a doctor. In 1893, sixteen year old Noguchi apprenticed with the same clinic as the doctor who had performed his surgery.
Japan was undergoing a modernization of its medical system during the Meiji Restoration. In 1872, Japan introduced medical examination for doctors, a costly and time consuming process. Although graduates of the Imperial University, an exclusive and elite college, in Tokyo were exempt from the examinations.
Noguchi was not able to get into the Imperial University because of his peasant class. In 1896, he left for Tokyo to receive formal training and prepare for his examination. After one month, Noguchi passed his written portion, and subsequently passed the clinical examinations at twenty years old. He worked at the port of Yokohama as a quarantine officer, earning 35 yen a month.
During this period, he indulged in brothels and wine. In 1898, Noguchi changed his first name to Hideyo after reading a novel by Japanese author Tsubouchi Shōyō about a college student whose character had the same name as him. The character in the story, Seisaku, was an intelligent medical student but became lazy and ruined his life.
Noguchi received a position at the Kitasato Research. Although, he was an outsider as one of the few doctors to have not graduated from the Imperial University.
Noguchi's patrons
Dr. Watanabe introduced Noguchi to Chiwaki Morinosuke founder of the Takayama Dental College who made him an apprentice. Both Noguchi and Morinosuke became close friend. Morinosuke felt Noguchi showed great talent.Noguchi's main benefactors were, Sakae Kobayashi, his elementary school teacher and father figure, Kanae Watanabe, the doctor who performed surgery on his hand, and Morinosuke Chiwaki, who helped fund his travel to the United States.
Leaving Japan
Noguchi was inspired to go to the United States, partly motivated by difficulties in obtaining a medical position in Japan as it required expensive schooling. He experienced discrimination as employers were concerned his hand deformity would discourage patients.In 1899, Noguchi met Simon Flexner during his internship as his translator, being one of a few people who spoke English and Japanese at the Kitasato Institute. Flexner, who was visiting to see research being made on dysentery from foreign scientists, gave polite words of encouragement to his desire to work in the United States.
Noguchi decided that was that and bought a ticket on the America Maru. Chiwaki took a loan to pay for it. Noguchi hosted a party to celebrate, spending most of his money before leaving.
Early career
On December 30, 1900, Noguchi arrived in Philadelphia. He surprised Flexner at his position at the University of Pennsylvania. In spite of their brief encounter, Noguchi requested a position but he said the university had no funds. Although, Flexner did want to hire an assistant to investigate snake venoms.Later in Flexner's diary, he recognized his courage and persistence for traveling so far from his home country. The day after he arrived, Flexner asked, "Have you ever studied snake venom?" While not having much experience, but an abundance of determination, he said, "Yes, sir, I do know a little about it, but I'd like the chance to learn more."
Research at University of Pennsylvania
On January 4, 1901, Noguchi started his research position, earning eight dollars a month, coming straight out of Flexner's pocket. Flexner left for San Francisco to investigate an outbreak of the plague, leaving Noguchi for three months under the guidance of Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell. Despite his lack of knowledge, Flexner returned to find he had written a 250 pages on snake venom. Flexner was impressed. In addition, Mitchell and Noguchi wrote a joint research paper, which was his first official publication. Both presented their scientific findings before the National Academy of Science in Philadelphia, one of the greatest honors an American scientist could have at the time. Dr. Mitchell spoke during the presentation but Noguchi handled the specimens.Dr. Mitchell said after their research concluded..."It is thanks to the great efforts of this young man that I have been able to bring my thirty years of research to their final conclusion."Although, Dr. Mitchell was concerned about his acceptance into larger Western society. During his research on snakes, Noguchi complained about live rabbits being fed to snakes in cages and felt the practice cruel, but colleagues said he was too sensitive. Nonetheless, Mitchell recommended him for the Carnegie Fellowship. Noguchi was accepted and became an official researcher and received funding from both the Carnegie Institute and National Academy of Science. Paul Ehrlich wrote to congratulate him. On July 9, 1907, the University of Pennsylvania awarded Hideyo Noguchi an honorary degree. On July 19, 1907, he wrote to about the accomplishment,
"Everything is beautiful when it is still in a dream state, but when it becomes a reality it is no longer interesting to me... When one wish comes true, another is born... Now I intend to request a medical degree from the Japanese government."